Jesus can walk on water
Cucumbers are 97% water
I can walk on cucumbers
I am 97% Jesus
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Dần dần ông chơi nhạc cho vũ trường Đại Nam, trên lầu thì có ban nhạc do Lê Văn Thiện, Huỳnh Anh và dưới lầu thì là ban nhạc Trường Hải.
Trong lúc chơi nhạc cho vũ trường thì Trường Hải bắt đầu sáng tác ca khúc.
Nhạc phẩm đầu tay mang tên "Còn nhớ tôi không", bán tác quyền cho trung tâm phát hành Diên Hồng được 15.000 đồng, một số tiền tương đương mấy tháng lương công chức hạng trung thời đó.
Bản kế tiếp là "Những chiều không có em", anh tự phát hành lấy đợt đầu được 3.000 bản.
Bản này do ca sĩ Hùng Cường hát đầu tiên được thính giả ái mộ.
Nhưng vì chính sách văn nghệ thời này cấm không cho phổ biến nhạc ủy mị trên đài phát thanh Sài Gòn nên sự phổ biến bị chậm lại, và anh bán bản quyền cho trung tâm của ca nhạc sĩ Duy Khánh với giá 18.000 đồng.
...
Sau đó nhạc sĩ Trường Hải chuyển hướng viết nhạc vui như bản "Nhịp đàn vui" tự phát hành được 10.000 bản. Và tiêu biểu nhất là bản "Tình ca người đi biển" với 30.000 bản được bán ra.
Ngoài ra ông còn phục vụ trong ban văn nghệ của Cục Quân Vận, Quân lực Việt Nam Cộng hòa. Sau 30/4/1975, Trường Hải làm nghề buôn bán nhạc cụ và có một dạo tham gia vào đoàn hát của Hoàng Biểu lưu diễn các tỉnh để sinh sống qua ngày và tìm đường vượt biển.
Năm 1979 thì ông vượt biên thành công đến Nam Dương và sau đó định cư tại Quận Cam năm 1980.
Năm 1981, ông lập trung tâm băng nhạc Trường Hải, được coi là sớm nhất ở hải ngoại.
Hiện ông đang sống một mình trong căn nhà nhỏ ngoại ô Quận Cam.
Tác Giả: Trường Hải
Trình bày: Trường Hải Năm sáng tác trước 1975
Lời bài hát
Trình bày: Trường Hải Năm sáng tác trước 1975
Lời bài hát
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Giữa kinh đô Sài Gòn
Có lá thu vàng bay
Có mây chiều giăng trắng
Gió thu rung hàng cây
Cho nhớ thương rơi đầy
Thu nhớ ai thu gầy
Anh nhớ em thu này
Nhớ đất nước quê hương
Xa xôi thu nào
Cùng nhau sánh bước
Nhớ bóng dáng thân yêu
Nghe heo may về
Mong nhớ người thương
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Giữa kinh đô Sài Gòn
Nhớ thu quê nhà xưa
Mắt em buồn xa vắng
Nhớ mong anh chiều nay
Khi lá thu rơi đầy
Thu nhớ ai thu vàng
Anh nhớ em trong hồn
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Giữa kinh đô Sài Gòn
Có lá thu vàng bay
Có mây chiều giăng trắng
Gió thu rung hàng cây
Cho nhớ thương rơi đầy
Thu nhớ ai thu gầy
Anh nhớ em thu này
Nhớ đất nước quê hương
Xa xôi thu nào
Cùng nhau sánh bước
Nhớ bóng dáng thân yêu
Nghe heo may về
Mong nhớ người thương
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Giữa kinh đô Sài Gòn
Nhớ thu quê nhà xưa
Mắt em buồn xa vắng
Nhớ mong anh chiều nay
Khi lá thu rơi đầy
Thu nhớ ai thu vàng
Anh nhớ em trong hồn
Nhớ đất nước quê hương
Xa xôi thu nào
Cùng nhau sánh bước
Nhớ bóng dáng thân yêu
Nghe heo may về
Mong nhớ người thương
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Tôi đi trong mùa thu
Nguyên quán của Trường Hải là ở tỉnh Sóc Trăng. Năm 18 tuổi, Trường Hải cùng một người bạn đồng lứa là nhạc sĩ Thanh Sơn lên thủ đô Sài Gòn để dấn thân vào con đường văn nghệ.
Thanh Sơn thi đậu hạng nhất giải ca của đài phát thanh Sài Gòn năm 1960 và Trường Hải thì đoạt giải nhì vào năm kế tiếp 1961 với bản "Gặp nhau" của Hoàng Thi Thơ.
Tuy vậy, cả hai đều sống lây lất vì chưa trở thành ca sĩ hát cho các phòng trà. Sau đó, ông được người quen giới thiệu chơi ghi-ta và thổi kèn trong một ban nhạc cho phòng trà Kim Sơn, Hòa Bình, phòng trà nhỏ của Sài Gòn đầu thập niên 1960 với Anh Quý, Song Ngọc, Duy Khiêm.
Thanh Sơn thi đậu hạng nhất giải ca của đài phát thanh Sài Gòn năm 1960 và Trường Hải thì đoạt giải nhì vào năm kế tiếp 1961 với bản "Gặp nhau" của Hoàng Thi Thơ.
Tuy vậy, cả hai đều sống lây lất vì chưa trở thành ca sĩ hát cho các phòng trà. Sau đó, ông được người quen giới thiệu chơi ghi-ta và thổi kèn trong một ban nhạc cho phòng trà Kim Sơn, Hòa Bình, phòng trà nhỏ của Sài Gòn đầu thập niên 1960 với Anh Quý, Song Ngọc, Duy Khiêm.
Dần dần ông chơi nhạc cho vũ trường Đại Nam, trên lầu thì có ban nhạc do Lê Văn Thiện, Huỳnh Anh và dưới lầu thì là ban nhạc Trường Hải.
Old Large Chinese Miao Minority decoration Jewelry
Trong lúc chơi nhạc cho vũ trường thì Trường Hải bắt đầu sáng tác ca khúc.
Nhạc phẩm đầu tay mang tên "Còn nhớ tôi không", bán tác quyền cho trung tâm phát hành Diên Hồng được 15.000 đồng, một số tiền tương đương mấy tháng lương công chức hạng trung thời đó.
Bản kế tiếp là "Những chiều không có em", anh tự phát hành lấy đợt đầu được 3.000 bản.
Hmong fabric
Bản này do ca sĩ Hùng Cường hát đầu tiên được thính giả ái mộ.
Nhưng vì chính sách văn nghệ thời này cấm không cho phổ biến nhạc ủy mị trên đài phát thanh Sài Gòn nên sự phổ biến bị chậm lại, và anh bán bản quyền cho trung tâm của ca nhạc sĩ Duy Khánh với giá 18.000 đồng.
...
Sau đó nhạc sĩ Trường Hải chuyển hướng viết nhạc vui như bản "Nhịp đàn vui" tự phát hành được 10.000 bản. Và tiêu biểu nhất là bản "Tình ca người đi biển" với 30.000 bản được bán ra.
Ngoài ra ông còn phục vụ trong ban văn nghệ của Cục Quân Vận, Quân lực Việt Nam Cộng hòa. Sau 30/4/1975, Trường Hải làm nghề buôn bán nhạc cụ và có một dạo tham gia vào đoàn hát của Hoàng Biểu lưu diễn các tỉnh để sinh sống qua ngày và tìm đường vượt biển.
Năm 1979 thì ông vượt biên thành công đến Nam Dương và sau đó định cư tại Quận Cam năm 1980.
Năm 1981, ông lập trung tâm băng nhạc Trường Hải, được coi là sớm nhất ở hải ngoại.
Hmong hair comb
Hiện ông đang sống một mình trong căn nhà nhỏ ngoại ô Quận Cam.
facebook:https://www.facebook.com/baodzuong95
fb em Minh đây:https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100008470757951
... fb em Minh đây:https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100008470757951
Băng nhạc
Khi
phong trào làm băng nhạc thịnh hành, ông còn thực hiện và sản xuất hàng
loạt băng nhạc "Trường Hải" với nhiều ca sĩ nổi tiếng lúc đó. Sau 1975,
ông vẫn tiếp tục ca hát và thực hiện thu âm băng nhạc Trường Hải.
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_H%E1%BA%A3i_(nh%E1%BA%A1c_s%C4%A9)
What types of questions were asked on Imperial Examinations during the Song Dynasty?
It was different in different dynasties. Here are the questions in the last imperial examinations(1904).
My translation may not be accurate but you will get the idea.
I. Provincial exams
...
...
II. Metropolitan exams (held every three years in the national capital)
Part one: History
1、“周唐外重内轻，秦魏外轻内重各有得论”。
Zhou dynasty and Tang dynasty had weak central governments and strong local governors while Qin and Wei were the opposite. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these two.
2、“贾谊五饵三表之说，班固讥其疏。然秦穆尝用之以霸西戎，中行说亦以戒单于，其说未尝不效论”。
Jia Yi talked about “three example and five bait”( The barbarians admire our culture so we give them nice food, beautiful clothes,women and music, palaces with servants, appeasements to make peace with them) Ban Gu thought it was a joke. Yet Duke Mu of Qin used it to make peace with Xi Rong (Western barbarians), Zhong Hangyue used it to warn Xiong Nu ( not to be controlled by China). Discuss why this might not be a bad idea.
3、“诸葛亮无申商之心而用其术，王安石用申商之实而讳其名论”。
Discuss: ZhuGe Liang did not have the heart of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang (both Legalists), but used their methods. Wang Anshi used their methods but did not want to admit it.
4、“裴度奏宰相宜招延四方贤才与参谋请于私第见客论”。
Discuss: Pei Du presented (the idea) that the prime minister should be able to discuss plans with sages and advisers in his own house. (At Pei’s time every discussion needed to be done at court before the emperor)
5、“北宋结金以图燕赵，南宋助元以攻蔡论”。
Discuss: Northern Song dynasty allied with Jin( Jurchen people) to attack Yan and Zhao, Southern Song allied with Yuan( Mongols) to attack Cai (Jin’s last city)
第二场考各国政治，艺学策五道。
Part two:Politics
1、“学堂之设，其旨有三，所以陶铸国民，造就人才，振兴实业。国民不能自立，必立学以教之，使皆有善良之德，忠爱之心，自养之技能，必需之知识，盖东西各国所同，日本则尤注重尚武之精神，此陶铸国民之教育也。讲求政治、法律、理财、外交诸专门，以备任使，此造就人才之教育也。分设农、工、商、矿诸学，以期富国利民，此振兴实业之教育也。三者孰为最急策”。
Schools are made for three reasons: educate the people, train talented people and revitalize the industries.....Which of these three is the most important?
2、“泰西外交政策往往借保全土地之名而收利益之实。盍缕举近百年来历史以证明其事策”。
Far western countries’ foreign policies often use the name of “protection” but end up gaining a lot of benefits. Please use examples from the past century to prove this.
3、“日本变法之初，聘用西人而国以日强，埃及用外国人至千余员，遂至失财政裁判之权而国以不振。试详言其得失利弊策”。
When Japan began its reforms, they employed westerners thus they became strong. Now Egypt also employed more than 1000 foreigners but ended up losing money and power and remains a weak state. Discuss the reason behind this.
4、“周礼言农政最详，诸子有农家之学。近时各国研究农务，多以人事转移气候，其要曰土地，曰资本，曰劳力，而能善用此三者，实资智识。方今修明学制，列为专科，冀存要术之遗。试陈教农之策”。
Zhou Li( a classic about propriety ) wrote about agricultural policy in the most details and among the Hundred Schools of Thought there were the Agriculturalists. Nowadays, countries do researches in agriculture, focus on men rather than weather, the basics are: Land,capital and labour. Only a intelligent person may use them wise. Now we are going to make agriculture an essential subject. Discuss the ways to teach people agriculture .
5、“美国禁止华工，久成苛例，今届十年期满，亟宜援引公法，驳正原约，以期保护侨民策”。
America has used the “Chinese Exclusion Act” to prohibit Chinese workers. Now ten years has pass and the terminal day is close. Use international law to rebut the old treaty and revise it to protect overseas Chinese.
第三场《四书》《五经》。
Part three: Classics
Questions related to “Four Books and Five Classics”
(The following three lines are translated by James Legg. Gathered from Chinese Text Project)
Explain these lines:
1.大學之道，在明明德，在親民，在止於至善
What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence.
*From: Da Xue (”The Great Learning”)
2.中立而不倚，強哉矯
He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in his energy!
*From: Zhong Yong (“The state of equilibrium and harmony”)
...
3.致天下之民，聚天下之貨，交易而退，各得其所
…bringing together all the people, and assembling in one place all their wares. They made their exchanges and retired, every one having got what he wanted…
*From: I Ching “Book of Changes”
...
III. The Palace Examination ( held every three years in the Imperial palace and often supervised by the emperor himself)
1. 君人之道，子育为心，虽深居九重，而虑周亿兆。民间疾苦，惟守令知之最真。汉以六条察二千石，而以察令之权寄之于守，此与今制用意无殊。而循良之绩，今不如古，粉饰欺蔽之习，何以杜之？世局日变，任事需才，学堂、警察、交涉、工艺诸政，皆非不学之人所能董理。将欲任以繁剧，必先扩其闻见，陶成之责在长官，顾各省设馆课吏，多属具文。上以诚求，下以伪应，宜筹良法以振策之。汉制县邑丞尉，多以本郡人为之，犹有周官遗意，其法尚可行否？
The way of the rulers is to care for their subjects as fathers care for sons. Though residing in palaces, they must consider the lives of millions of billions. Only local prefects know best the pain of the people. In Han dynasty the central government used “the six laws” to supervise the local prefects, but gave them the power to inspect and govern. This is not unlike today.
However, now we see local prefects often cheat and lie to the central government. How may we put an end to this kind of practice?
The society is changing fast, and talents are needed everywhere. Schooling, police, negotiation and technology, these cannot be managed by people without education.
If we want to appoint people with great tasks, we must first broaden their horizon.
And this job relies on local officers. Yet, instead of training and examining people, what they have done are often dead letters. The central government asks with sincerity, and they respond with sham. We need good ways to urge them. In Han dynasty all officers were from native people. Should we follow this practice?
2. 三代之制，寓兵于农，自井田沟洫之法废，遂专用征兵，岂因时而变，各得其宜欤？汉高祖设轻车骑士，材官楼船，常以秋后讲肄课试。三者各随其地之所宜，盍析言之？唐初置府兵，中叶府兵制坏，专用征兵，能详陈其得失利弊欤？宋韩琦之议养兵，苏轼之言定军制，练军实最为深切著明。能以今日情势互证之欤？兵强于学，学兴于教，环球列邦，多以尚武立国。知兵之选，遍于士夫，体育之规，基诸童稚，师人长技，可不深究其原欤？
In ancient dynasties (Xia, Shang, Zhou) servicemen came from peasants. After the Well-field system and the GouXu system ended, conscription started. Was it because the situation has changed? (*Examples from Han, Tang, Song military systems, this is a bit hard to translate) …Compare the military systems of Han, Tang and Song dynasties. What can we learn from them? The Power of the military comes from knowledge, and knowledge comes from education. Many countries around the globe became powerful through acknowledging the importance of military. Many of their officers know military, and physical education starts from children. Since we are learning from them, shouldn't we find the deeper reason?
3. 《周礼·太宰》以九式均节财用，注云：“式谓用财之节度，职内掌邦之赋入，职岁掌邦之赋出。”此与各国之豫算、决算有异同否？苏轼之策理财，谓天下之费，有去之甚易而无损，存之甚难而无益。曾巩之议经费，谓浮者必求其所以浮之自而杜之，约者必本其所以约之由而从之。皆扼要之论，能引申其旨欤？节流不外省冗费、裁冗官，施行之序，能筹其轻重缓急欤？开源之法，以农工商该之，今特设专部，悉心区画，整齐利导之方，能缕陈欤？
The chapter "Tai Zai" from "Zhou li" described nine laws to manage the treasury. Does this have any similarity with the budgets management of foreign countries? (*Quotes from Su Shi and Zeng Gong on funds) Can you extent their points? Can we reduce expenditure by reducing extra staffs and governmental spending and is there a good procedure to do so? We will broaden incomes by adding agricultural, industrial and commercial departments. Can you devise specific plans to manage them?
4. 士习之邪正，视乎教育之得失，古者司徒修明礼教，以选士、俊士、造士为任官之法。汉重明经，复设孝廉、贤良诸科，其时贾董之徒最称渊茂，东汉之士以节义相高，论者或病其清议标榜，果定评欤？唐初文学最盛，中叶而后，干进者至有求知己与温卷之名，隆替盛衰之故，试探其原。宋世名儒辈出，各有师承，至于崇廉耻、敦气节，流风所被，迄有明而未衰，果人能自树立欤？抑师道立而善人多欤？今欲使四海之内，邪慝不兴，正学日著，其何道之从？
How scholars do, depends on how they are educated (* Scholars would usually become officials and politicians in ancient China). The ancients learned Li (Confucian), Han dynasty valued MingJing (Confucian Classics) and used Xiaolian to recruit officials, while Eastern Han valued JieYi (continency and righteousness). In Tang dynasty writings (poems/prose etc) became a fashion and in Song dynasty scholars with great moral arose. Can people learn goodness by themselves, or do they need great teachers to guide them? Now if we want restrain the spread of evil thoughts around the country and encourage Confucianism, what can we do?
Usually an Imperial Examinations in early Song Dynasty consists of three questions.
The first one is 赋(Ode). The second is 诗(Poem). And the third is 论(Discourse).
赋 requires candidates to write an ode on a certain topic with limited rhythm. Usually the topic is of traditional Chinese philosophy theories or philosophical metaphors.
There is a sentence with eight Chinese characters to tell the rhythm limit and also act as prompt.
诗 requires candidates to write a poem(usually five Chinese characters per line, and I don’t know if seven Chinese characters poems are allowed) of a given topic.
The topic is quite varied , I have seen topics from military music to noble etiquette in different examinations. This poem is short than the 赋(Ode).
论 requires candidates to write a discourse according to a brief statement given in the question.
Here is an example: The Imperial Examination of 8th year of Tiansheng Era(AD 1030, 天圣八年 in Chinese) has three questions.
The first is 藏珠于渊赋以君子非贵难得之物为韵(Write an ode about hiding pearl in the abyss, rhythm limited in 君子非贵难得之物). 君子非贵难得之物 means ‘Gentlemen do not consider rare things important’. The second is 翠旌诗(Write a poem about emerald feather flag), and the third is 儒者可与守成论(Write a discourse about ‘Confucian scholars can help with preserving the achievements’).
...
Of course everything has an exception.
...
The Imperial Examination of 4th year of Zhiping Era(AD 1067, 治平四年 in Chinese) has only two questions and both of them are 赋(Ode).
After 3rd year of Xining Era(AD 1070, 熙宁三年 in Chinese), the Imperial Examination are changed as one of the Wang Anshi's reform methods.
...
According to historical records, the examination changed its format without any advance notice and as a result all candidates and examination officials are in confusion.
...
The examination has only one question called 策论(Discourse on Politics).
The question is written in Classical Chinese with about 100 Chinese characters.
And candidates are required to write an article in Classical Chinese with more than a thousand Chinese characters.
If you can read Classical Chinese and want to learn more, there is a book named 中国状元殿试卷大全(Collection of Top Answers In China Imperial Examinations) published by Shanghai Educational Publishing House. This book has all the Imperial Examination questions from Tang Dynasty to Qing Dynasty.
What types of questions were asked on Imperial Examinations during the Song Dynasty?
It was different in different dynasties. Here are the questions in the last imperial examinations(1904).
My translation may not be accurate but you will get the idea.
I. Provincial exams
...
...
II. Metropolitan exams (held every three years in the national capital)
Part one: History
1、“周唐外重内轻，秦魏外轻内重各有得论”。
Zhou dynasty and Tang dynasty had weak central governments and strong local governors while Qin and Wei were the opposite. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these two.
2、“贾谊五饵三表之说，班固讥其疏。然秦穆尝用之以霸西戎，中行说亦以戒单于，其说未尝不效论”。
Jia Yi talked about “three example and five bait”( The barbarians admire our culture so we give them nice food, beautiful clothes,women and music, palaces with servants, appeasements to make peace with them) Ban Gu thought it was a joke. Yet Duke Mu of Qin used it to make peace with Xi Rong (Western barbarians), Zhong Hangyue used it to warn Xiong Nu ( not to be controlled by China). Discuss why this might not be a bad idea.
3、“诸葛亮无申商之心而用其术，王安石用申商之实而讳其名论”。
Discuss: ZhuGe Liang did not have the heart of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang (both Legalists), but used their methods. Wang Anshi used their methods but did not want to admit it.
Buddha from Central Vietnam
4、“裴度奏宰相宜招延四方贤才与参谋请于私第见客论”。
Discuss: Pei Du presented (the idea) that the prime minister should be able to discuss plans with sages and advisers in his own house. (At Pei’s time every discussion needed to be done at court before the emperor)
5、“北宋结金以图燕赵，南宋助元以攻蔡论”。
Discuss: Northern Song dynasty allied with Jin( Jurchen people) to attack Yan and Zhao, Southern Song allied with Yuan( Mongols) to attack Cai (Jin’s last city)
第二场考各国政治，艺学策五道。
Part two:Politics
1、“学堂之设，其旨有三，所以陶铸国民，造就人才，振兴实业。国民不能自立，必立学以教之，使皆有善良之德，忠爱之心，自养之技能，必需之知识，盖东西各国所同，日本则尤注重尚武之精神，此陶铸国民之教育也。讲求政治、法律、理财、外交诸专门，以备任使，此造就人才之教育也。分设农、工、商、矿诸学，以期富国利民，此振兴实业之教育也。三者孰为最急策”。
Schools are made for three reasons: educate the people, train talented people and revitalize the industries.....Which of these three is the most important?
2、“泰西外交政策往往借保全土地之名而收利益之实。盍缕举近百年来历史以证明其事策”。
Far western countries’ foreign policies often use the name of “protection” but end up gaining a lot of benefits. Please use examples from the past century to prove this.
3、“日本变法之初，聘用西人而国以日强，埃及用外国人至千余员，遂至失财政裁判之权而国以不振。试详言其得失利弊策”。
When Japan began its reforms, they employed westerners thus they became strong. Now Egypt also employed more than 1000 foreigners but ended up losing money and power and remains a weak state. Discuss the reason behind this.
Cambodian Sculpture
4、“周礼言农政最详，诸子有农家之学。近时各国研究农务，多以人事转移气候，其要曰土地，曰资本，曰劳力，而能善用此三者，实资智识。方今修明学制，列为专科，冀存要术之遗。试陈教农之策”。
Zhou Li( a classic about propriety ) wrote about agricultural policy in the most details and among the Hundred Schools of Thought there were the Agriculturalists. Nowadays, countries do researches in agriculture, focus on men rather than weather, the basics are: Land,capital and labour. Only a intelligent person may use them wise. Now we are going to make agriculture an essential subject. Discuss the ways to teach people agriculture .
5、“美国禁止华工，久成苛例，今届十年期满，亟宜援引公法，驳正原约，以期保护侨民策”。
America has used the “Chinese Exclusion Act” to prohibit Chinese workers. Now ten years has pass and the terminal day is close. Use international law to rebut the old treaty and revise it to protect overseas Chinese.
第三场《四书》《五经》。
Part three: Classics
Questions related to “Four Books and Five Classics”
(The following three lines are translated by James Legg. Gathered from Chinese Text Project)
Explain these lines:
1.大學之道，在明明德，在親民，在止於至善
What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence.
*From: Da Xue (”The Great Learning”)
2.中立而不倚，強哉矯
He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side. How firm is he in his energy!
*From: Zhong Yong (“The state of equilibrium and harmony”)
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…bringing together all the people, and assembling in one place all their wares. They made their exchanges and retired, every one having got what he wanted…
*From: I Ching “Book of Changes”
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III. The Palace Examination ( held every three years in the Imperial palace and often supervised by the emperor himself)
1. 君人之道，子育为心，虽深居九重，而虑周亿兆。民间疾苦，惟守令知之最真。汉以六条察二千石，而以察令之权寄之于守，此与今制用意无殊。而循良之绩，今不如古，粉饰欺蔽之习，何以杜之？世局日变，任事需才，学堂、警察、交涉、工艺诸政，皆非不学之人所能董理。将欲任以繁剧，必先扩其闻见，陶成之责在长官，顾各省设馆课吏，多属具文。上以诚求，下以伪应，宜筹良法以振策之。汉制县邑丞尉，多以本郡人为之，犹有周官遗意，其法尚可行否？
The way of the rulers is to care for their subjects as fathers care for sons. Though residing in palaces, they must consider the lives of millions of billions. Only local prefects know best the pain of the people. In Han dynasty the central government used “the six laws” to supervise the local prefects, but gave them the power to inspect and govern. This is not unlike today.
However, now we see local prefects often cheat and lie to the central government. How may we put an end to this kind of practice?
The society is changing fast, and talents are needed everywhere. Schooling, police, negotiation and technology, these cannot be managed by people without education.
If we want to appoint people with great tasks, we must first broaden their horizon.
And this job relies on local officers. Yet, instead of training and examining people, what they have done are often dead letters. The central government asks with sincerity, and they respond with sham. We need good ways to urge them. In Han dynasty all officers were from native people. Should we follow this practice?
2. 三代之制，寓兵于农，自井田沟洫之法废，遂专用征兵，岂因时而变，各得其宜欤？汉高祖设轻车骑士，材官楼船，常以秋后讲肄课试。三者各随其地之所宜，盍析言之？唐初置府兵，中叶府兵制坏，专用征兵，能详陈其得失利弊欤？宋韩琦之议养兵，苏轼之言定军制，练军实最为深切著明。能以今日情势互证之欤？兵强于学，学兴于教，环球列邦，多以尚武立国。知兵之选，遍于士夫，体育之规，基诸童稚，师人长技，可不深究其原欤？
In ancient dynasties (Xia, Shang, Zhou) servicemen came from peasants. After the Well-field system and the GouXu system ended, conscription started. Was it because the situation has changed? (*Examples from Han, Tang, Song military systems, this is a bit hard to translate) …Compare the military systems of Han, Tang and Song dynasties. What can we learn from them? The Power of the military comes from knowledge, and knowledge comes from education. Many countries around the globe became powerful through acknowledging the importance of military. Many of their officers know military, and physical education starts from children. Since we are learning from them, shouldn't we find the deeper reason?
3. 《周礼·太宰》以九式均节财用，注云：“式谓用财之节度，职内掌邦之赋入，职岁掌邦之赋出。”此与各国之豫算、决算有异同否？苏轼之策理财，谓天下之费，有去之甚易而无损，存之甚难而无益。曾巩之议经费，谓浮者必求其所以浮之自而杜之，约者必本其所以约之由而从之。皆扼要之论，能引申其旨欤？节流不外省冗费、裁冗官，施行之序，能筹其轻重缓急欤？开源之法，以农工商该之，今特设专部，悉心区画，整齐利导之方，能缕陈欤？
The chapter "Tai Zai" from "Zhou li" described nine laws to manage the treasury. Does this have any similarity with the budgets management of foreign countries? (*Quotes from Su Shi and Zeng Gong on funds) Can you extent their points? Can we reduce expenditure by reducing extra staffs and governmental spending and is there a good procedure to do so? We will broaden incomes by adding agricultural, industrial and commercial departments. Can you devise specific plans to manage them?
4. 士习之邪正，视乎教育之得失，古者司徒修明礼教，以选士、俊士、造士为任官之法。汉重明经，复设孝廉、贤良诸科，其时贾董之徒最称渊茂，东汉之士以节义相高，论者或病其清议标榜，果定评欤？唐初文学最盛，中叶而后，干进者至有求知己与温卷之名，隆替盛衰之故，试探其原。宋世名儒辈出，各有师承，至于崇廉耻、敦气节，流风所被，迄有明而未衰，果人能自树立欤？抑师道立而善人多欤？今欲使四海之内，邪慝不兴，正学日著，其何道之从？
How scholars do, depends on how they are educated (* Scholars would usually become officials and politicians in ancient China). The ancients learned Li (Confucian), Han dynasty valued MingJing (Confucian Classics) and used Xiaolian to recruit officials, while Eastern Han valued JieYi (continency and righteousness). In Tang dynasty writings (poems/prose etc) became a fashion and in Song dynasty scholars with great moral arose. Can people learn goodness by themselves, or do they need great teachers to guide them? Now if we want restrain the spread of evil thoughts around the country and encourage Confucianism, what can we do?
Well, it’s an interesting question and I bet even most of native Chinese don’t know the answer. Since I’m from China and not very good at academical English, my translation below maybe inaccurate. But I’ll try my best.
Usually an Imperial Examinations in early Song Dynasty consists of three questions.
The first one is 赋(Ode). The second is 诗(Poem). And the third is 论(Discourse).
赋 requires candidates to write an ode on a certain topic with limited rhythm. Usually the topic is of traditional Chinese philosophy theories or philosophical metaphors.
There is a sentence with eight Chinese characters to tell the rhythm limit and also act as prompt.
诗 requires candidates to write a poem(usually five Chinese characters per line, and I don’t know if seven Chinese characters poems are allowed) of a given topic.
The topic is quite varied , I have seen topics from military music to noble etiquette in different examinations. This poem is short than the 赋(Ode).
论 requires candidates to write a discourse according to a brief statement given in the question.
Here is an example: The Imperial Examination of 8th year of Tiansheng Era(AD 1030, 天圣八年 in Chinese) has three questions.
The first is 藏珠于渊赋以君子非贵难得之物为韵(Write an ode about hiding pearl in the abyss, rhythm limited in 君子非贵难得之物). 君子非贵难得之物 means ‘Gentlemen do not consider rare things important’. The second is 翠旌诗(Write a poem about emerald feather flag), and the third is 儒者可与守成论(Write a discourse about ‘Confucian scholars can help with preserving the achievements’).
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Of course everything has an exception.
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The Imperial Examination of 4th year of Zhiping Era(AD 1067, 治平四年 in Chinese) has only two questions and both of them are 赋(Ode).
After 3rd year of Xining Era(AD 1070, 熙宁三年 in Chinese), the Imperial Examination are changed as one of the Wang Anshi's reform methods.
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According to historical records, the examination changed its format without any advance notice and as a result all candidates and examination officials are in confusion.
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https://www.facebook.com/beccluminary/
The examination has only one question called 策论(Discourse on Politics).
The question is written in Classical Chinese with about 100 Chinese characters.
And candidates are required to write an article in Classical Chinese with more than a thousand Chinese characters.
Arcanjo Miguel: Galeria de Imagens de São Miguel
If you can read Classical Chinese and want to learn more, there is a book named 中国状元殿试卷大全(Collection of Top Answers In China Imperial Examinations) published by Shanghai Educational Publishing House. This book has all the Imperial Examination questions from Tang Dynasty to Qing Dynasty.
https://www.quora.com/What-types-of-questions-were-asked-on-Imperial-Examinations-during-the-Song-Dynasty
Emperor Duy Tân Cabinet. Left to right: Prime Ministers Tôn Thất Hân Justice(Vietnamese: thượng thư bộ hình), Nguyễn Hữu Bài Law (Vietnamese:thượng thư bộ lại), Huỳnh Côn Interior (Vietnamese: thượng thư bộ lễ), King's brother (Vietnamese: Hoàng thân) Miên Lịch, Lê Trinh Foreign Relations (Vietnamese: thượng thư bộ công), Cao Xuân Dục Education (Vietnamese: thượng thư bộ học)
Da esquerda para a direita, em cima: Bishamon e Benzaiten,Em baixo: Daikoku, Ebisu, Fukurokyu, Hotei e Jurojin.
A mandarin (Vietnamese: Quan thái bộc) was a public official in the monarchist days of Vietnam where the system of Imperial examinations and scholar-bureaucrats was adopted under Chinese influence.
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The word comes through the Portuguese mandarim from Malay mantri, a counselor or minister of state; the ultimate origin of the word is the Sanskrit root man-, meaning “to think.”
The Vietnamese word comes from the Chinese word for Guan (or Kuan).
Ganesha also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka or by
numerous other names, is one of the best-known and most worshipped
deities in the Hindu pantheon.
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The Vietnamese mandarin is a title bestowed on people who went through rigorous training and examination in scholastic understanding.
Primarily based on the Chinese standards, examinations included writing, literature, history and mathematics.
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The mandarin, appointed to the royal court, was an honour that came with privileges. There are nine ranks (or classes) in the royal court for a mandarin's advancement, starting with Ninth progressing to First, being the rank of Prime ministers.
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It was considered life time achievements for these mandarins to be named as one of the Quartet Pillars to the royal court.
Royal Quartet Pillars was the four most trusted and highest ranking mandarins to the Emperor.
Under Gia Long's rule, Vietnamese mandarins followed the later Le Dynasty's structure, which was modified from the Chinese Imperial Court.
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Under Minh Mang's rule, the mandarin system was revised, taken directly from the Manchurian system, and this emperor added the prime and sub-prime ranks to each of the nine levels.
Emperor Duy Tân, born Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh San, was a boy emperor of
the Nguyễn Dynasty and reigned for 9 years between 1907 and 1916.
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Traditionally, after a mandarin had served his term, he would retire to his hometown and provided education to the local schools with what he learned at the Royal court.
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Educated Vietnamese peasants could be estimated at 25% prior to the Imperial French days.
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During the French Protectorate days, this number dropped to 10% even though more, non-governmental people were educated abroad, either from England or France.
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This was due to the lack of interest from lower classes or reluctance of the upper class to share their knowledge.
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After Vietnam government offered public and private education, the number of educated peasants increased somewhat, but not to the previous level.
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When Vietnam gained independence from France, an explosive effort was put forth from abroad and by South Vietnam to educate the peasant mass.
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The followings are yearly pay, supplies and subsidies for official robes to serve during audience with the king.
The subsidies for official robes determined the type of materials, or silk, that were used to create the robes.
This was set with the purpose of preventing a lower rank official from obtaining a higher rank official's robe.
First Rank Prime minister: $400 yuan, 300 rice units, $70 yuan for uniforms.
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First Rank minister: $300 yuan, 250 rice units, $60 yuan for uniforms
Second Rank Prime minister: $250 yuan, 200 rice units, $50 yuan for uniforms
Second Rank minister: $180 yuan, 150 rice units, $30 yuan for uniforms
Third Rank Prime minister: $150 yuan, 120 rice units, $20 yuan for uniforms
Third Rank minister: $120 yuan, 90 rice units, $16 yuan for uniforms
Jacob left Beersheba and set out for Haran. When he reached a certain place, he stopped for the night because the sun had set. Taking one of the stones there, he put it under his head and lay down to sleep. He had a dream in which he saw a stairway/ladder resting on the earth, with its top reaching to heaven, and the angels of God were ascending and descending on it.
Fourth Rank Prime minister: $80 yuan, 60 rice units, $14 yuan for uniforms.
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Fourth Rank minister: $60 yuan, 50 rice units, $10 yuan for uniforms
Fifth Rank Prime minister: $40 yuan, 43 rice units, $9 yuan for uniforms
Fifth Rank minister: $35 yuan, 30 rice units, $8 yuan for uniforms
Six Rank minister: $30 yuan, 25 rice units, $7 yuan for uniforms
Six Rank deputy minister: $30 yuan, 22 rice units, $6 yuan for uniforms
Seven Rank minister: $25 yuan, 20 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Seven Rank deputy minister: $22 yuan, 20 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Eight Rank minister: $20 yuan, 18 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Eight Rank deputy minister: $20 yuan, 18 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Nine Rank minister: $18 yuan, 16 rice units, $4 yuan for uniforms
Nine Rank deputy minister: $18 yuan, 16 rice units, $4 yuan for uniforms
https://sites.google.com/site/vietnamesemartyrs/history/vietnamese-mandarin
What are some of the characteristics of the Imperial Civil Service Examination?
Though already in existence, cameras were not the main tool used by the French to make visual records of their holdings in Indochina during the 19th century. In their infancy during this time, their fragile and expensive nature made cameras a rarity, especially when traversing Vietnam's dense jungles, winding rivers and treacherous mountains. Instead, sketches were used to capture images of the region. Interestingly, compared to photographs, sketches lend much more creative freedom to their maker and reality can be easily skewed and prejudices displayed. https://saigoneer.com/saigon-people/1438-10-sketches-of-indochina-from-the-19th-century
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To select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy.
During French occupation, the monetary unit in Indochina was the Piastre, often referred to as "bac". Eventually, colonial authorities instituted the use of Mexico coins, weighing in at 27.73 grams and later the Dong Duong coin weighing 27 grams. https://saigoneer.com/old-saigon/old-saigon-categories/2931-a-look-at-vietnamese-currency-through-history
This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree.
The Indochina Bank also issued banknotes, with images of three girls in the traditional costumes of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Neighboring Asian countries such as Japan, Vietnam and Korea also implemented similar systems to draw in their top national talent.
Established in 605 CE during the Sui Dynasty, the imperial examinations developed and matured during the Tang Dynasty, continuing until their 1905 abolition under the Qing Dynasty, a history of 1,300 years.
The modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.
Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded.
In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry.
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Ngày 10/4/1862, sau khi mới chiếm được Nam Kỳ, Thiếu tướng Bonard (Tổng chỉ huy liên quân Pháp - Tây Ban Nha) đã ký quyết định xác định tính hợp pháp cho lưu hành đồng bạc Mexicana (Mễ Tây Cơ - Mê Hi Cô), mà dân gian thường gọi là “đồng bạc con cò”. Đến năm 1864, để biểu hiện chủ quyền của mình, Pháp định cho lưu hành đồng 5 Franc của Pháp thay thế đồng Mexicana nhưng thất bại, bởi đồng bạc này đã quá thông dụng; và trong quá trình lưu hành, nếu chỉ dùng số tiền nhỏ, dân gian đành phải chặt đồng bạc thành 4 hoặc thành 5 phần nhỏ để tính như bạc lẻ (hay còn gọi là bạc cắt, sau này qui đổi thành hào) mà vẫn được tín dụng. Trước tình hình đó, áp dụng đạo luật ngày 24/6/1875 của Quốc hội Pháp quy định về sự phát triển của hệ thống ngân hàng thuộc địa, ngày 21/01/1875, Tổng thống Pháp ra sắc lệnh thành lập Banque de l’Indochine (Ngân hàng Đông Dương - chữ Hán viết là Đông Dương Hối lý Ngân hàng), trụ sở đặt tại Paris với số vốn ban đầu là 8 triệu franc. Banque de l’Indochine có các chi nhánh ở Hải Phòng (1885), Hà Nội (1887), Nouméa (1888), Phnompenh và Đà Nẵng (1891), Trung Quốc (1894), Bangkok (1896), Papeet và Singapore (1904), Djibouti (1907)...https://sites.google.com/site/namkyluctinhorg/tac-gia-tac-pham/khong-ro-tac-gia/tien-kim-loai-dhong-duong
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However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination.
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Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were basically abolished and official posts were oftentimes simply sold, which increased corruption and undermined public morale.
1862 - đồng bạc Mexicana: 1 peso (một mặt hình con ó biển cổ cong, một mặt hình đốm lửa) thường gọi là đồng hoa xòe, đồng con cò.
The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across the whole of China were taught with the same values.
Even though only a small fraction (about 5 percent) of those who attempted the examinations passed them and received titles, the studying and the hope of eventual success on a subsequent examination served to sustain the interest of those who took them.
Those who failed to pass—most of the candidates at any single examination—did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100720201358AApi9CM&guccounter=1
The Qin dynasty (221–207 bce) established the first centralized Chinese bureaucratic empire and thus created the need for an administrative system to staff it.
Recruitment into the Qin bureaucracy was based on recommendations by local officials.
This system was initially adopted by the succeeding Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), but in 124 bce, under the reign of the Han emperor Wudi, an imperial university was established to train and test officials in the techniques of Confucian government.
The Sui dynasty (581–618) adopted this Han system and applied it in a much more systematic way as a method of official recruitment.
They also introduced the rule that officials of a prefecture must be appointees of the central government rather than local aristocrats and that the local militia was to be subject to officials of the central government.
The Tang dynasty (618–907) created a system of local schools where scholars could pursue their studies.
Those desiring to enter the upper levels of the bureaucracy then competed in the jinshi exams, which tested a candidate’s knowledge of the Confucian Classics.
This system gradually became the major method of recruitment into the bureaucracy; by the end of the Tang dynasty, the old aristocracy was destroyed, and its power was taken by the scholar-gentry, who staffed the bureaucracy.
This nonhereditary elite would eventually become known to the West as “mandarins,” in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese they employed.
The civil service system expanded to what many consider its highest point during the Song dynasty (960–1279).
Public schools were established throughout the country to help the talented but indigent, business contact was barred among officials related by blood or marriage, relatives of the imperial family were not permitted to hold high positions, and promotions were based on a merit system in which a person who nominated another for advancement was deemed totally responsible for that person’s conduct.
Almost all Song officials in the higher levels of the bureaucracy were recruited by passing the jinshi degree, and the examinations became regularly established affairs.
After 1065 they were held every three years, but only for those who first passed qualifying tests on the local level.
Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the civil service system reached its final form, and the succeeding Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) copied the Ming system virtually intact.
During this period no man was allowed to serve in his home district, and officials were rotated in their jobs every three years. The recruitment exam was divided into three stages: the xiucai (“cultivated talent”), or bachelor’s degree, held on the local-prefecture level; the juren (“recommended man”), given at the prefectural capital; and the jinshi, held at Beijing.
Although only the passage of the jinshi made one eligible for high office, passage of the other degrees gave one certain privileges, such as exemption from labour service and corporal punishment, government stipends, and admission to upper-gentry status (juren).
Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent cheating, different districts in the country were given quotas for recruitment into the service to prevent the dominance of any one region, and the testing matter was limited to the Nine Classics of Confucianism.
The examination became so stylized that the set form for an examination paper came to be the famous “eight-legged essay” (bagu wenzhang), which had eight main headings, used not more than 700 characters, and dealt with topics according to a certain set manner. It had no relation to the candidate’s ability to govern and was often criticized for setting a command of style above thought.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-civil-service
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The Cham-Đại Việt War of 1471 was a military expedition launched by Emperor Lê Thánh Tông of Đại Việt, and is widely regarded as the event that marked the downfall of Champa. The Đại Việt forces attacked and sacked the kingdom's largest city-state, Vijaya, and defeated the Cham army. When the conflict was resolved, Champa was forced to cede territory to Annam, and was no longer a threat to Annamese territory.
Vietnam is a multi-ethnic country with over fifty distinct groups (54 are recognized by the Vietnamese government), each with its own language, lifestyle, and cultural heritage. Many of the local ethnic groups are known collectively in the West as Montagnard or Degar. The largest ethnic groups are: Kinh (Viet) 86.2%, Tay 1.9%, Tai Ethnic 1.7%, Mường 1.5%, Khmer Krom (Khơ Me Crộm) 1.4%, Hoa 1.1%, Nùng 1.1%, Hmong 1%, others 4.1% (1999 census). The Vietnamese term for ethnic group is người thiểu số or dân tộc thiểu số (literally "minority people").
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The Cham and the Đại Việt have had a long history of conflict. In the course of their wars, peace often paired with economic exhaustion, recovering their economies just to go to war again.[2] When fighting resumed in 1471, the Champa kingdom found itself weakened and isolated. It has experienced numerous civil wars and, at one point, had five different rulers. For its earlier attack on Angkor, the Khmers ignored the Cham's request for assistance when Vietnam invaded.
The Cham also requested Ming China to intervene by helping bring the Vietnamese back in line by force and demarcate the border between Champa and Vietnam. China, however, only verbally rebuked the Vietnamese for its incursion, which the Vietnamese ignored, proceeding with its attack and plan to destroy its rival.
The Vietnamese then carried out its campaign. On November 28, 1470, Le Thanh Tong formally launched his attack as a 100,000-strong Vietnamese naval expedition set out that day, followed by another Vietnamese army consisting of 150,000 men on December 8.
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The Vietnamese army was reorganized to copy the Chinese army, armed with gunpowder weapons. Le Thanh Tong raised a total of 300,000-strong army in the battlefield and, significantly outnumbering the 100,000-strong Cham army. This came at a massive financial cost since it drained the Vietnamese treasury of 1,000 gold liang each day. However, it decisively won the war.
The Cham representatives told the Chinese that "Annam destroyed our country". The Chinese Ming Dynasty records contain the extent of the Vietnamese destruction wrought on Champa. The Vietnamese enslaved several thousand Chams and enacted forced assimilation of Vietnamese culture onto Chams. The number included 50 members of the royal family.[9] The Chams informed China that they continued to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of their land, which had been turned into the 13th province of Vietnam.
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The Champa kingdom was destroyed by the invasion, leaving small rump states which lasted until 1832, when Vietnamese emperor Minh Mang initiated the final conquest of the remnants of Champa. The Vietnamese ceramics trade was severely affected due to impact suffered by the Cham merchants after the invasion.[11] The Chinese scholar 吳樸 Wu Pu recommended that to help stop the Vietnamese, China should help resuscitate the Champa Kingdom.
The Chinese government sent a censor, Ch'en Chun, to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but he discovered Vietnamese soldiers had taken over Champa and were blocking his entry. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to China. Malacca sent envoys to China again in 1481 to inform the Chinese that while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them.
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The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and also that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back due to lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. The Chinese Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked.
Only a small Cham kingdom remained in the south but this did not persist. Around 162,000 Cham remain in Vietnam today.
The victory allowed the Đại Việt a period of stability since it united the north under the Trinh dynasty. It also allowed the kingdom to consolidate its power in its later conflict with the Nguyen family that ruled the south.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War_(1471)
Vào những thập niên 60, 70 của thế kỉ XX trong làng giải trí văn nghệ miền Nam xuất hiện một nam ca sĩ với chất giọng hát liêu trai gốc người Chàm.
Tiếng hát ai oán cùng những tình khúc nói về lứa đôi tan vỡ và những cách trở của quê hương như chính thực trạng của đất nước đang có chiến tranh.
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Vì vậy, nó đã lôi cuốn làm mê muội người nghe một cách kì lạ.
Người ca sĩ đó mang tên Chăm là Ja Mlen, ở palei Hamu Tanran, tỉnh Ninh Thuận.
Sau này, nổi tiếng với nghệ danh Chế Linh.
Thời niên thiếu, như bao trẻ em Chăm khác, Chế Linh phải lao động sớm, anh gánh vác kinh tế gia đình bằng việc đi chăn trâu thuê.
Cùng với đám bạn mục đồng, với tiếng sáo trúc và lời ca trên lưng trâu vào mỗi buổi trưa hè vô tư, dần dần hình thành nên một chất giọng khỏe khoắn, mặn mà, truyền cảm, bùi và mùi mặn rất đặc trưng.
Và mỗi khi tiếng hát đó được ngân lên ai cũng dễ dàng nhận ra đó là của ca sĩ Chế Linh.
Tiếng hát Chế Linh sẽ khó vượt ra khỏi không gian palei Chăm, nếu không có biến cố xảy ra với cuộc đời anh. Khi Chế Linh còn học Trung học, chính phủ Ngô Đình Diệm vì muốn xóa bỏ ý thức tộc người thiểu số để đồng hóa nhanh các sắc dân khác thành người Việt.
Tổng thống Ngô Đình Diệm đã ban hành Quyết định cấm dạy thổ ngữ trong phạm vi toàn quốc.
Trong đó có chữ Chăm – Akhar Thrah, vốn được tự do truyền bá suốt thời kì Pháp thuộc cũng không nằm ngoại lệ.
Bức xúc trước sự phân biệt văn hóa cùng với những mâu thuẫn sắc tộc, Chế Linh quyết chí giải thoát bằng những chuyến đi xa nhà với mong muốn tìm lại sự hài hòa, gần gũi và đoàn kết giữa hai dân tộc Chăm-Việt.
Nhưng lúc bấy giờ, anh vẫn chưa có một kế hoạch, một sự chuẩn bị nào cho cuộc “trốn chạy” của tuổi thiếu niên.
May mắn thay! Chế Linh quen biết bà Tư Ửng là người Hoa ở chợ Phú Quý chuyên đi bán vải dạo ở các palei Chăm.
Mỗi chuyến đi buôn như thế, bà luôn cần người mang, vác vải dùm. Bà Tư Ửng còn có người thân thuộc làm nghề buôn bán ở Chợ Lớn (Saigon).
Thế là, với sự nông nổi của tuổi thiếu niên, Ja Mlen đã theo bà Tư Ửng vào đô thành Saigon để tìm kiếm nguồn mưu sinh thỏa mãn chí phiêu lưu.
Ở chốn đô thành, Chế Linh không có tài sản gì và cũng chẳng có nghề nghiệp, anh được giới thiệu đến làm nghề gánh nước thuê trong Chợ Lớn. Trong thời gian này, anh hoàn toàn không có thông tin gì từ gia đình ở quê nhà. Và ngược lại, ở quê nhà cũng không ai biết lí do tại sao anh nao hoang – đi bụi.
Như một sự sắp đặt của ý trời, trong lần gánh nước, Chế Linh tình cờ gặp được người anh họ cùng quê là ông Lưu Quý Tân. Thấy người em vất vả ở nơi đất khách quê người, ông Lưu Quý Tân bàn với Chế Linh về kế hoạch đến chung sống với gia đình.
Theo nguyện vọng của người anh họ, muốn Chế Linh quay trở lại trường lớp. Còn những lúc rảnh rỗi thì chăm sóc em, đi chợ và dọn dẹp nhà cửa. Tuy nhiên, đi học không bao lâu, Chế Linh nhận ra mình không có duyên với chuyện đèn sách. Nên, xin đi học nhạc theo sở thích. Và năng khiếu về âm nhạc của Chế Linh được nuôi dưỡng và phát triển đầu tiên khi gặp nhạc sĩ Đàng Năng Quạ (Chế Vũ Phương) khi ông đang học tại trường Quốc gia Sư phạm Saigon.
Sau này, Chế Linh có cơ hội được gặp gỡ với ca sĩ Duy Khánh. Từ đó, Chế Linh có nhiều bước ngoặt lớn trong cuộc đời và sinh hoạt văn nghệ trong làng giải trí âm nhạc ở miền Nam. Chỉ trong một thời gian ngắn, tiếng hát Chế Linh có nhiều tiến bộ, từng bước chinh phục được triệu khán thính giả nghe nhạc và được mệnh danh là tứ trụ âm nhạc ở đất Saigon bao gồm: Duy Khánh, Trần Thiện Thanh (Nhật Trường), Hùng Cường và Chế Linh.
Sự chín mùi trong nghiệp cầm ca của Chế Linh được đánh dấu bằng giải thưởng Kim Khánh với chiếc huy chương vàng cho hạng nam ca (năm 1972). Khi đã có chỗ đứng trong lòng khán giả, Chế Linh liên tục phát hành rất nhiều CD và tham gia nhiều chương trình Đại Nhạc hội toàn miền Nam. Thể loại nhạc anh chọn để thể hiện và giọng hát Chế Linh được nhiều tầng lớp người yêu mến.
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Đặc biệt, sự kết hợp ngẫu nhiên giữa cặp đôi Thanh Tuyền- Chế Linh, một giọng nữ cao và giọng nam trầm, tạo thành đôi song ca ăn ý đã thật sự làm chấn động một hiện tượng âm nhạc mới. Tiếng hát Chế Linh được chào đón khắp đô thành, ngoài chiến trường đến tận nơi miệt vườn. Trong những chuyến lưu diễn ở miền Trung, Chế Linh cùng đồng nghiệp đã tổ chức nhiều show diễn miễn phí cho học sinh Trường Trung học Pô Klong.
Tuy là người rất nổi tiếng cả trong nước lẫn ở hải ngoại, nhưng Chế Linh ở ngoài đời có lối sống khá bình dân, chan hòa với mọi người. Chế Linh còn có một đức tính khác mà ít người biết đến. Đó là tính dễ bị mắc cỡ. Khi còn chăm sóc, đưa đón bé Đào đi học (đang học lớp 1, trường tiểu học Đinh Tiên Hoàng)-con gái rượu của ông Lưu Quý Tân.
Vào dịp Trung Thu, bé dặn Chế Linh mua cho lồng đèn có hình ngôi sao. Không biết có phải bị mắc cỡ vì lớn tuổi rồi mà đi mua lồng đèn chăng, nên Chế Linh chỉ mua lồng đèn giấy tròn và xếp gọn gàng mang về. Thấy chẳng giống lồng đèn Trung Thu ưa thích, bé khóc nức nở. Chế Linh dỗ hoài bé cũng không nín, thấy vậy, người hàng xóm tặng lồng đèn khác cho Chế Linh đền cho bé.
Gần 30 năm sinh hoạt âm nhạc ở nước ngoài, vào năm 2007, Chế Linh quay trở về Việt Nam lần đầu tiên để thăm lại palei Chăm. Các bô lão, dân làng chào đón Ja Mlen như chính người thân ruột thịt của mình ở xa mới về. Một năm sau đó, Chế Linh cùng bà con Chăm đón rước Y Trang Po Inư Nưgar vào mùa lễ hội Katê.
Nhân dịp này, Chế Linh đã thể hiện những ca khúc dân ca Chăm phục vụ cho đồng bào mình thưởng thức thật du dương thật sâu lắng khó tả. Được khán giả vỗ tay khen ngợi không dứt, đến nỗi Chế Linh không cầm được cảm xúc trên sân khấu quê nhà. Ja Mlen-Chế Linh không chỉ là đứa con Chăm yêu quý của riêng dân tộc Chăm mà còn là thần tượng của triệu khán thính giả người Việt trên toàn cầu./.
https://gilaipraung.com/2011/10/jaya-bahasa-cau-chuy%E1%BB%87n-v%E1%BB%81-ja-mlen-ch%E1%BA%BF-linh-it-d%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c-bi%E1%BA%BFt-d%E1%BA%BFn/
Lý Thường Kiệt (李常傑; 1019–1105) was a Vietnamese eunuch, general, and admiral during the Lý Dynasty in Vietnam.[1] He was a leading general for Vietnam during the Lý-Song wars.
Lý Thường Kiệt was born into a Ngô family in Thăng Long (now Hanoi), the capital of Đại Việt (ancient Vietnam). His real name was Ngô Tuấn. His father was a low-ranking military officer. In 1036, he served the Emperor as a cavalry captain and later the commander of the imperial guard. Because of his demonstrated bravery, intelligence and loyalty, he was granted a royal name, Lý Thường Kiệt, and given an important position in the Court.
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In 1075, Chancellor Wang Anshi of China under the Song Dynasty told Emperor Shenzong that Đại Việt was being weakened by Champa and was an easy pick for a Chinese take-over. With less than ten thousand soldiers remaining, so argued Wang, Đại Việt would be in a vulnerable position, and it would be a great opportunity for China to annex its age-old enemy.
In response, Shenzong mobilized troops and passed decrees which forbade all of China's provinces to trade with Đại Việt, in effect imposing an embargo on the country in the same way that the United States would do nine centuries later. Upon hearing this, the Lý ruler sent Lý Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tôn Đản with more than 100,000 troops to China to carry out a pre-emptive attack against the Song Dynasty. In the ensuing 40-day battle near modern-day Nanning, Đại Việt troops were victorious, capturing the generals of three Song armies.
In 1076, the Song formed an alliance with the other enemies of Dai Viet, Champa and the Khmer Empire and all three sent troops to invade Đại Việt. Đại Việt Emperor Lý Nhân Tông again sent General Lý Thường Kiệt to lead his forces. Being one of the many great military strategists of Vietnam, Lý Thường Kiệt placed spikes under the Như Nguyệt riverbed before tricking Song troops into the death trap, killing more than 1,000 Chinese soldiers and sailors and forcing the rest of Chinese forces to retreat.
Those two significant Vietnamese victories over the Song ceased the latter's attempts to extend south. Afterwards, Lý Thường Kiệt also led a Vietnamese army south to invade Champa twice, with both invasions being successful. He died in 1105 at the age of 86. He may have been the author of Chinese poem, Nam Quốc Sơn Hà. However there is still controversy surrounding exact authorship.
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The poem was written to motivate troops to fight against the Song dynasty. According to Trần Trọng Kim, Ly was afraid that his soldiers would lose morale so he wrote this poem and said it was done by the Gods to restore their fighting spirit.
In US President Barack Obama's visit to Vietnam, he referred to the poem as Vietnam's "declaration of independence" saying that big countries should not bully smaller countries, which is somewhat ironic given the US-waged Vietnam War. Nonetheless, to this day the poem is still well-known in Vietnam, and Ly is considered a national hero (by Vietnam, not China), with some Vietnamese still delivering tribute to and worshipping him as a deity at his shrine in Hanoi.
General Ly Thuong Kiet was also the author of the Phạt Tống lộ bố văn (chữ Hán : 伐宋露布文, An Account of the Campaign to Punish the Song), another poem against the Song Dynasty.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD_Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_Ki%E1%BB%87t
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Lý Thường Kiệt of the Lý Dynasty is one of the greatest generals in Vietnamese history, helping the country defeat the Chinese Song Dynasty in the 11th century. He was born in the city of Thang Long (modern day Hanoi) in 1019 and died in 1105 at the age of 86. Lý served as the captain of a cavalry before rising through the ranks of the Vietnamese military.
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In order for him to lead the Imperial Guards, he had to be castrated and become a eunuch. As a military leader Lý Thường Kiệt proves to be more than capable, not only was he victorious against the Chinese, but against the Cham and Cambodian armies as well. Besides his military triumphs, Lý Thường Kiệt is also remembered for writing the famous poem Nam Quốc Sơn Hà, the very first Declaration of Independence of Vietnam. To this day, Lý Thường Kiệt is still revered as one of Vietnam’s greatest heroes.
The Lý–Song War was a significant war fought between the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt and the Song dynasty of China between 1075 and 1077. The war began in 1075 when the Lý emperor ordered a preemptive invasion of the Song dynasty using more than 100,000 soldiers, where Đại Việt's forces defeated the Song army and razed the city of Yongzhou (modern day Nanning) to the ground after a forty-two day siege.
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In response, in 1076 the Song led an army of over 300,000 to invade Đại Việt and by 1077 nearly reached Thăng Long, the capital of Đại Việt, before being halted by general Lý Thường Kiệt at the Nhu Nguyệt River in modern Bắc Ninh Province. After a long battle at the river with high casualties on both sides, Lý Thường Kiệt offered peace to the Song, and the Song commander Guo Kui agreed to withdraw his troops, ending the war.
Tension and border hostilities were already high in the years prior to the war; in the 1050s, Nùng Trí Cao, the head of the local Nùng people in Quảng Nguyên (now Cao Bằng Province) attempted to fight for independence and establish a frontier state for his people, but his rebellion was crushed by Song general Di Qing (1008–1061).[8] While the Lý court did not intervene in the matter, the threat of Song expansion was always on the horizon due to increasing numbers of Han Chinese settlers, such as the soldiers from Di Qing's division and those north of the Yangzi River settled in areas that the Lý relied upon for the extraction of natural resources.
In 1075, Wang Anshi, the chancellor of the Song dynasty, told Emperor Shenzong (r. 1067–1085) that Đại Việt was being destroyed by Champa, with less than ten thousand soldiers surviving, so hence it would be a good occasion to annex Đại Việt.
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The Song emperor then mobilized his troops and passed a decree to forbid all the provinces of Song to trade with Đại Việt; this prompted the Lý court under Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127) to authorize a preemptive invasion of Guangxi in the Song dynasty. Lý Nhân Tông then sent general Lý Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tông Đán, a kinsman of the Nùng rebel Nùng Trí Cao, to lead more than a hundred thousand soldiers to invade the Chinese province of Guangxi.
In the autumn of 1075, Nùng Tông Đán advanced into Song territory in Guangxi while a naval fleet commanded by Lý Thường Kiệt captured Qinzhou and Lianzhou prefectures.[12] Lý Thường Kiệt calmed the apprehensions of the local Chinese populace, claiming that he was simply apprehending a rebel who took refuge in China and that the local Song authorities had refused to cooperate in detaining him.
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In the early spring of 1076, Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tông Đán defeated the Song militia of Yongzhou,[13] and during a battle at Kunlun Pass, their forces beheaded the Governor-General of Guangnan West Circuit, Zhang Shoujie (d. 1076).[13] Afterwards, the Lý forces then marched towards the city of Yongzhou, where they were temporarily held up by a fierce resistance led by the Yongzhou governor Su Jian, who with three thousand soldiers prevented the city from falling for forty-two days.
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After the forty-two-day siege, on March 1, 1076, Yongzhou was finally breached and then razed to the ground, as Lý forces massacred 58,000 people within the city.[15] Prior to the massacre, after the city was lost, governor Su Jian and thirty-six members of his family in the city committed suicide, with Su Jian stating "I won't die at the hands of those thieves." Several sources estimate that the total number of people killed by Lý troops during this campaign totaled 100,000.
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When Song forces attempted to challenge Lý's forces, the latter retreated, with their spoils of war and thousands of prisoners. Lý Thường Kiệt had fought a war with the Chams in 1069, and in 1076, the Song called upon their vassal states the Khmer Empire and Champa to go to war again against the Lý. At the same time, the Song commander Guo Kui (1022–1088) led the combined Song force of approximately 300,000 men against Lý,[3] who were at the time simultaneously defending against incursions from the Khmer Empire and Champa.[13] The Song quickly regained Quảng Nguyên prefecture and in the process captured the resistance leader Lưu Ký, the chieftain of Quảng Nguyên that had attacked Yongzhou in 1075.
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By 1077, the Song had destroyed two other Vietnamese armies and marched towards their capital at Thăng Long (modern Hanoi). Song forces were halted at the Nhu Nguyệt River (in modern Bắc Ninh Province), where Lý Thường Kiệt had built a defense system by placing spikes under the Như Nguyệt riverbed before tricking Song troops into the death trap, killing more than 1,000 Chinese soldiers and sailors.
In avoiding this strong defense system, the commander of the Song army, Guo Kui decided to change the army's direction towards the nearby region of Phú Lương, where they then defeated Lý Thường Kiệt's forces in a major battle.
As the Song forces took the offensive, while the Lý Dynasty had to strenuously hold on to their costly defensive front, Lý Thường Kiệt tried to boost the morale of his soldiers by citing a poem before his army named "Nam quốc sơn hà". However, Song forces eventually broke through his defense line and their cavalry advanced to within several kilometers of the capital city.
The Vietnamese counterattacked and pushed Song forces back across the river while their coastal defenses distracted the Song navy. Lý Thường Kiệt also launched an offensive, but lost two Lý princes in the fighting at Kháo Túc River.[18] According to Chinese sources, "tropical climate and rampant disease" severely weakened Song's military forces while the Lý court feared the result of a prolonged war so close to the capital.
As a result of mounting casualties on both sides, Thường Kiệt made peace overtures to the Song; the Song commander Guo Kui agreed to withdraw his troops since they had lost 400,000 men,[6] but kept five disputed regions of Quảng Nguyên (renamed Shun'anzhou or Thuận Châu), Tư Lang Châu, Môn Châu, Tô Mậu Châu, and Quảng Lăng, while Đại Việt held control of the Yong, Qin and Lian prefectures.
These areas now comprise most of modern Vietnam's Cao Bằng Province and Lạng Sơn Province.[18] In 1082, after a long period of mutual isolation, Emperor Lý Nhân Tông of Đại Việt returned Yong, Qin, and Lian prefectures back to Song authorities, along with their prisoners of war, and in return Song relinquished its control of four prefectures and the county of Đại Việt, including the Nùng clan's home of Quảng Nguyên.[18] Further negotiations took place from July 6 to August 8, 1084 and were held at Song's Yongping garrison in southern Guangnan, where Lý's Director of Military Personnel Lê Van Thình (fl. 1075–1096) convinced Song to fix the two countries' borders between Quảng Nguyên and Guihua prefectures.
An aftermath of the war that still exists today resulted from an agreement that was negotiated by both sides that fixed the two country's borders; the resulting line of demarcation exists largely unmodified to the present day.
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The Song failed expedition was considered as a severe blow for the dynasty, bolstered its poor military reputation. Angered with the failure, Emperor Shenzong of Song banished Guo Kui for the rest of his life, in which Guo Kui had taken all responsibility. The war highlighted Vietnamese independence and considered as the marking point of Vietnam's militaristic successes.
https://freedomforvietnam.wordpress.com/2010/04/page/2/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD%E2%80%93Song_War
Mạc Đĩnh Chi là một trong những kỳ tài trong lịch sử khoa bảng nước ta. Ông được phong là lưỡng quốc trạng nguyên.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi tự là Tiết Phu, hiệu Tích Am, quê ở làng Lũng Động, huyện Chí Linh, tỉnh Hải Dương (nay thuộc thôn Lũng Động, xã Nam Tân, huyện Nam Sách, Hải Dương).
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Theo tài liệu của các nhà sử học Đinh Xuân Lâm và Trương Hữu Quýnh, ông sinh năm 1272 trong gia đình nghèo, mồ côi cha từ nhỏ. Hàng ngày, hai mẹ con phải vào rừng đốn củi bán. Mẹ ông đã hy sinh tất cả để nuôi con ăn học. Bà chỉ mong con thoát cảnh nghèo, có thể thi cử đỗ đạt, giúp ích cho đời. Hiểu được lòng mẹ, Mạc Đĩnh Chi không ngừng gắng sức học tập.
Theo sách Những tấm gương hiếu học xưa và nay, Mạc Đĩnh Chi đọc sách gần như mọi lúc, mọi nơi, kể cả lúc kiếm củi.
Ông thức dậy từ rất sớm, vào rừng lấy củi xong mới về học tiếp. Nhiều lần, Mạc Đĩnh Chi đến lớp muộn, thầy giáo hiểu được hoàn cảnh của học trò nên không trách phạt. Nhiều hôm, thầy còn bảo Mạc Đĩnh Chi ở lại làm thêm việc, cốt để ông được ăn bữa no.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi mượn sách của thầy và bạn để học. Không có tiền mua nến, ông đốt củi, lá cây để đọc sách.
Trong kỳ thi năm Giáp Thìn (1304), Mạc Đĩnh Chi thi đỗ hội nguyên, sau đó thi Đình đỗ trạng nguyên khi mới chỉ 24 tuổi. Ông ra làm quan, trải qua ba triều vua, gồm Trần Anh Tông, Trần Minh Tông và Trần Hiến Tông.
Ông được vua Trần tin dùng, thăng đến chức Đại liêu ban tả Bộc xạ (tể tướng). Ông hai lần được cử sang phương Bắc vào các năm 1308 và 1322.
Ngay trong chuyến đi đầu tiên, ông đã chứng minh tài năng, cốt cách của người Việt, buộc vua Nguyên phải phong mình làm trạng nguyên Bắc triều (lưỡng quốc trạng nguyên).
Bên cạnh đức hiếu học, nét đáng quý ở Mạc Đĩnh Chi là ông luôn giữ được bản tính thật thà, cương trực, thẳng thắn, hết lòng vì nước, vì dân.
Theo sách Kể chuyện trạng Việt Nam của GS Vũ Ngọc Khánh, dù nghe tiếng ông liêm khiết đã lâu, vua Trần Minh Tông vẫn muốn thử thách. Nhà vua sai thị vệ bỏ trước cửa nhà Mạc Đĩnh Chi 10 quan tiền. Sáng hôm sau tỉnh dậy, thấy tiền để trước cửa, ông lập tức vào triều tâu lên vua.
- Tâu bệ hạ, sáng sớm nay, thần bắt được 10 quan tiền ở trước cửa nhà, hỏi khắp cả nhà không ai nhận, nay thần xin trao lại để bệ hạ trả cho người đã mất!
Vua Trần Minh Tông mỉm cười và nói:
- Tiền ấy không ai nhận, cho khanh giữ lấy mà dùng.
- Thưa bệ hạ, tiền này không ít, người mất của chắc xót xa lắm nên tìm người trả lại thì hơn.
- Khanh yên tâm, cứ giữ lấy mà dùng, tiền ấy để thưởng cho lòng chính trực, liêm khiết của khanh đấy.
Bấy giờ, Mạc Đĩnh Chi mới vỡ lẽ là nhà vua thử lòng ông. Nhận tiền xong, ông chào tạ ơn nhà vua rồi ra về.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi mất năm 1346, thọ 74 tuổi. Điện thờ và phần mộ ông đặt tại quê nhà. Ngày nay, nhiều tỉnh thành ở nước ta có những con đường và ngôi trường mang tên ông.
http://m.danviet.vn/dong-tay-kim-co/mac-dinh-chi-tu-cau-be-ban-cui-thanh-luong-quoc-trang-nguyen-779544.html
The Temple of Literature (Vietnamese: Văn Miếu, Hán-Nôm: 文廟[1]) is a Temple of Confucius in Hanoi, northern Vietnam. The temple hosts the Imperial Academy (Quốc Tử Giám, 國子監), Vietnam's first national university. The temple was built in 1070 at the time of Emperor Lý Thánh Tông. It is one of several temples in Vietnam which is dedicated to Confucius, sages and scholars. The temple is located to the south of the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long.
The various pavilions, halls, statues and stelae of doctors are places where offering ceremonies, study sessions and the strict exams of the Đại Việt took place. The temple is featured on the back of the 100,000 Vietnamese đồng banknote. Just before the Vietnamese New Year celebration Tết, calligraphists will assemble outside the temple and write wishes in Hán characters. The art works are given away as gifts or are used as home decorations for special occasions. The temple was built in 1070 and was reconstructed during the Trần dynasty (1225–1400) and in the subsequent dynasties. For nearly two centuries, despite wars and disasters, the temple has preserved ancient architectural styles of many dynasties as well as precious relics. Major restorations have taken place in 1920, 1954 and 2000.
"In the autumn of the year Canh Tuat, the second year of Than Vu (1070), in the 8th lunar month, during the reign of King Lý Thánh Tông, the Văn Miếu was built. The statues of Confucius, his four best disciples: Yan Hui (Nhan Uyên), Zengzi (Tăng Sâm), Zisi (Tử Tư), and Mencius (Mạnh Tử), as well as the Duke of Zhou (Chu Công), were carved and 72 other statues of Confucian scholars were painted. Ceremonies were dedicated to them in each of the four seasons. The Crown Princes studied here."
In 1076, Vietnam's first university, the "Quốc Tử Giám" or Imperial Academy, was established within the temple during the reign of Lý Nhân Tông to educate Vietnam's bureaucrats, nobles, royalty, and other members of the elite. The university remained open from 1076 to 1779. In 1802, the Nguyễn dynasty's monarchs founded the Huế capital where they established a new imperial academy. The academy at the Hanoi temple lost its prominence and became a school of the Hoài Đức District.
Under the French protectorate, the Văn Miếu - Quốc Tử Giám was registered as a Monument historique in 1906. During the period of 1945- 1954, the French demolished parts of the temple to make room for the sick and wounded since the hospitals were full during times of war. Campaigns of restoration were pursued in 1920 and 1947 under the responsibility of École française d'Extrême-Orient (French School of the Far East).
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The temple layout is similar to that of the temple at Qufu, Shandong, Confucius' birthplace. It covers an area of over 54000 square metres, including the Văn lake, Giám park and the interior courtyards which are surrounded by a brick wall.[5] In front of the Great Gate are four tall pillars. On either side of the pillars are two stelae commanding horsemen to dismount.
The gate opens onto three pathways which continues through the complex. The centre path was reserved for the monarch and above the center path there is a big bronze bell, The path to the left is for the administrative Mandarins and the path to the right is for military Mandarins. The interior of the site is divided into five courtyards. The first two courtyards are quiet areas with ancient trees and trimmed lawns, where scholars would relax away from the bustle of the outside world.
The bell located above the main gate was used to signify that an important person was coming through and was added to the Văn Miếu in the 19th century. The bell was made out of Bronze and could only be touched by monks. On the bell several patterns can be found including an outline of a phoenix, which represents beauty, and a dragon, which represents power. Both of these symbols are used to represent the Emperor and Queen. A bell can be found in all of the pagodas in Vietnam.
The first courtyard extends from the Great Portico to the Dai Trung (Đại Trung), which is flanked by two smaller gates: the Dai Tai gate (Đại Tài Môn) and the Thanh Duc gate (Thành Đức Môn).
The second courtyard contains the Khue Van pavilion (Khuê Văn Các, 奎文閣), a unique architectural work built in 1805 and a symbol of present-day Hanoi. The Khue Van pavilion is built on four white-washed stone stilts. At the top is a red-coloured with two circular windows and an elaborate roof. Inside, a bronze bell hangs from the ceiling to be rung on auspicious occasions.
Beside the Khue Van pavilion are the Suc Van gate (Súc Văn Môn) and the Bi Van gate (Bi Văn Môn). These two gates are dedicated to the beauty of literature, both its content and its form. In the first and second courtyards there are topiaries (bushes that are cut into particular shapes) that represent the 12 zodiac animals.
One enters the third courtyard from the Khue Van pavilion. In the third courtyard is the Thien Quang well (Thiên Quang Tỉnh). On either side of the well stand two great halls which house the treasures of the temple.
In 1484, the Emperor Lê Thánh Tông erected 116 steles of carved blue stone turtles with elaborate motifs to honour talent and encourage study.
The Turtle (Quy, 龜) is one of the nation's four holy creatures - the others are the Dragon (Long, 龍), the Unicorn (Ly, 麟) and the Phoenix (Phượng, 鳳).
The turtle is a symbol of longevity and wisdom. The shape and size of the turtle changed with the passage of time.
The doctors' steles are a valuable historical resource for the study of culture, education and sculpture in Vietnam. 82 stelae remain. They depict the names and birth places of 1307 graduates of 82 triennial royal exams. Between 1442 and 1779, eighty-one exams were held by the Lê dynasty and one was held by the Mạc dynasty.
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The ancient Chinese engravings on each stele praise the merits of the monarch and cite the reason for holding royal exams.
They also record the mandarins who were tasked with organising the exams.
It used to be common to rub the stone turtles' heads, but now there is a fence that is meant to prevent people from doing this in order to preserve the turtles.
On each side of the ceremonial fourth courtyard stand two halls. Their original purpose was to house altars to the seventy-two most honoured disciples of Confucius and Chu Văn An (a rector of the Imperial Academy). In the centre of the fourth courtyard is the House of Ceremonies (Đại Bái Đường).
The next building is the Thượng Điện, where Confucius and his four closest disciples Yanhui, Zengshen, Zisi and Mencius are worshipped. The sanctuary also hosts altars to ten honoured philosophers.
A small museum displays ink wells, pens, books and personal artefacts belonging to some of the students that studied at the temple.
In 1076, Emperor Ly Nhan Tong ordered the construction of an imperial academy as a fifth courtyard. Literate mandarins were selected as students. In 1236, the academy was enlarged and named Quốc Tử Viện and later Quốc Học Viện.
In the Lê dynasty it was called Thái Học Viện and was developed further. This development included the Minh Luân house, west and east classrooms, a storehouse for wooden printing blocks and two sets of three 25 room dormitories.
The Khải Thánh shrine was built to honour the parents of Confucius.
In 1946, the courtyard was destroyed by the French in 1946.
In the year 2000, the fifth courtyard was reconstructed on grounds of the original "Imperial Academy".
It honours the talents, the national traditions and the culture and education of Vietnam.
The design of the new fifth courtyard were based on the traditional architecture in harmony with the surrounding sights of the temple.
Several buildings were constructed including the front building, the rear building, the left and right buildings, a bell house and a drum house.
The Thái Học courtyard occupies 1530 m2 of the temple's total area of 6150 m2.
The front building has a number of functions.
Ceremonies in memory of cultural scholars are organised from the front building as are scientific activities and cultural events.
The rear building has two levels.
The ground floor has a statue of Chu Văn An (a rector of the academy) and shows exhibits of the temple and the academy with a display on Confucian education in Vietnam.
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The upper floor is dedicated to the three monarchs who contributed most to the foundation of the temple and the academy: Lý Thánh Tông (1023–1072), who founded the temple in 1070, Lý Nhân Tông (1066–1127), who founded the Imperial Academy, and Lê Thánh Tông (1442–1497), who ordered the erection of the turtle stone stelae of doctor laureates in 1484.
On either side of the rear building are square buildings which hold a drum and a bronze bell.
The drum is 2.01 metres wide, 2.65 metres high, has a volume of 10 m3 and weighs 700 kilogram. The bell was cast in 2000. It has a height of 2.1 metres and it is 0.99 metres wide.
The organization of instruction and learning at the Imperial Academy began in 1076 under the Lý dynasty and was further developed in the 15th century under the Le dynasty.
The academy was headed by a rector (Tế tửu) and a vice-rector (Tư nghiệp). The professors of the academy held different titles: Giáo thụ, Trực giảng, Trợ giáo and Bác sĩ.
Many students lived and studied at the Temple. Most students (Giám sinh) had passed the regional exam (Hương Examination - Thi Hương) before enrolling at the academy. During the course of study at the academy, the students focused on discussion of literature and wrote poetry as well. The students learned Chinese, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese history.
They had textbooks printed on paper which were in both Chinese and Vietnamese. They read The Four Books (Tứ thư, 四書): "The Great Study" (Đại Học, 大學), "The Golden Means" (Trung Dung, 中庸), "The Analects" (Luận Ngữ, 論語) and "Mencius" (Mạnh Tử, 孟子); Five Pre-Confucian Classics (Ngũ Kinh, 五經): "Book of Odes (Kinh Thi, 詩經), "Book of Annals" (Kinh Thư, 書經), "Book of Rites" (Kinh Lễ, 禮記), "Book of Change" (Kinh Dịch, 易經) and "Book of Spring and Autumn" (Kinh Xuân Thu, 春秋); ancient poetry and Chinese history among others.
The students enrolled for three to seven years. They had minor tests each month and four major tests per year. Success in the exams, certified by the Ministry of Rites (Bộ Lễ, 禮部) qualified them to sit the national exam (Hội Examination - Thi Hội). Success at the Hội Examination qualified the student to sit the royal exam, the Đình Examination (Thi Đình), held at court. At this exam, the monarch himself posed the questions, responded to the candidate's answer and then ranked those who passed into different grades. The Imperial Academy was the largest centre in the country.
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The Trần dynasty (Nhà Trần, 陳朝, Trần triều[2][3]) ruled in Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) from 1225 to 1400. The dynasty was founded when emperor Trần Thái Tông ascended to the throne after his uncle Trần Thủ Độ orchestrated the overthrow of the Lý dynasty. The final emperor of the dynasty was Thiếu Đế, who at the age of five years was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his maternal grandfather, Hồ Quý Ly. The Trần dynasty defeated three Mongol invasions, most notably in the decisive Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 1288.[4]
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The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian before they migrated under Trần Kính (陳京, Chén Jīng) to Đại Việt, where their mixed-blooded descendants established the Trần dynasty which ruled Đại Việt. The descendants of the Trần clan who came to rule Đại Việt were of mixed-blooded descent due to many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý[5][6] and Trần Thừa, the latter whose son Trần Thái Tông would later become the first emperor of the Trần dynasty.[7] Their descendants established the Tran dynasty, which ruled Vietnam (Dai Viet).
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Some of the mixed-blooded descendants and certain members of the clan could still speak Chinese, as when a Yuan dynasty envoy met with the Chinese-speaking Tran Prince Trần Quốc Tuấn in 1282.[1][2][3][8][9][10][11][12][13] The first of the Trần clan to live in Đại Việt was Trần Kinh, who settled in Tức Mặc village (now Mỹ Lộc, Nam Định) who lived by fishing.[14][15] After three generations in Đại Việt, the Trần clan became a rich and powerful family under Trần Lý, who was Trần Kinh's grandson.
During the troubled time under the reign of Lý Cao Tông, the Crown Prince Lý Sảm sought refuge in the family of Trần Lý and decided to marry his beautiful daughter Trần Thị Dung in 1209.[17] Afterward, it was the Trần clan who helped Lý Cao Tông and Lý Sảm restore the throne in Thăng Long. As a result, the Emperor appointed several members of the Trần clan for high positions in the royal court, such as Tô Trung Từ, who was an uncle of Trần Thị Dung, and Trần Tự Khánh and Trần Thừa, who were Trần Lý's sons.[17] In 1211 the Crown Prince Lý Sảm was enthroned as Lý Huệ Tông after the death of Lý Cao Tông. By that time the Trần clan's position began to rise in the royal court.
Having been mentally ill for a long time, the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông ultimately decided to cede the throne of the Lý dynasty to crown princess Lý Chiêu Hoàng in October of the lunar calendar, 1224.[20] Ascending the throne at the age of only six, Lý Chiêu Hoàng ruled under the total influence of the commander of the royal guard, Trần Thủ Độ. Even the Empress Regnant's servants were chosen by Trần Thủ Độ; one of them was his 7-year-old nephew Trần Cảnh.[21]
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When Trần Cảnh informed Trần Thủ Độ that the Empress Regnant seemed to have affection towards him, the leader of the Trần clan immediately decided to take this chance to carry out his plot to overthrow the Lý dynasty and establish a new dynasty ruled by his own clan. First Trần Thủ Độ moved the whole Trần clan to the royal palace and arranged a secret marriage between Lý Chiêu Hoàng and Trần Cảnh there, without the appearance of any mandarin or member of the Lý royal family.
After that, he announced the fait accompli to the royal court and made Lý Chiêu Hoàng cede the throne to her new husband on the grounds that she was incapable of holding office. Thus Trần Cảnh was chosen as her successor. As a result, the 216-year reign of the Lý dynasty was ended and the new Trần dynasty was created on the first day of the twelfth lunar month (Gregorian: December 31), 1225.
After the collapse of the Lý Dynasty, Trần Thủ Độ was still afraid that the newly established Trần Dynasty might be overthrown by its political opponents. He therefore continued to ruthlessly eliminate members of the Lý royal family. First the former emperor Lý Huệ Tông in the tenth lunar month of 1226,[24] then other members of the Lý royal family were massacred by the order of Trần Thủ Độ in the eighth lunar month of 1232.[25][26][27]
Trần Thái Tông was enthroned when he was only eight-years-old. There were several rebellions in Đại Việt at that time, so Trần Thủ Độ had to devote all of his efforts to consolidating the rule of Thái Tông in the royal court and over the country.
Right after the coronation of the Emperor in 1226, Nguyễn Nộn and Đoàn Thượng rose in revolt in the mountainous region of Bắc Giang and Hải Dương. By both military and diplomatic measures, such as sending an army and by awarding two leaders of the revolt the title of Prince (Vương), Trần Thủ Độ was able to put down this revolt in 1229.
According to Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, Thái Tông and his wife, the Empress Chiêu Thánh, did not have their first son for some time.
This situation worried the grand chancellor Trần Thủ Độ because he had profited from similar circumstances with the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông in overthrowing the Lý dynasty. Therefore, in 1237 Trần Thủ Độ decided to force Prince Hoài Trần Liễu, Thái Tông's elder brother, to give up his wife, Princess Thuận Thiên, for the Emperor when she had been pregnant with Trần Quốc Khang for three months.
After the royal marriage, Thuận Thiên was entitled the new empress of the Trần dynasty, while Chiêu Thánh was downgraded to princess. Furious at losing his pregnant wife, Trần Liễu rose in revolt against the royal family. Meanwhile, Thái Tông felt awkward about the situation and decided to become a monk at Yên Tử Mountain in Quảng Ninh.
Finally Trần Thủ Độ successfully persuaded Thái Tông to return to the throne, and Trần Liễu had to surrender after judging that he could not stand with his fragile force.
All soldiers who participated in this revolt were killed; Trần Thủ Độ even wanted to behead Trần Liễu but was stopped by Thái Tông. Fujian was the origin of the Trần ancestors who migrated to Vietnam under Trần Kinh along with a large amount of other Chinese during the Ly dynasty where they served as officials.
Distinctly Chinese last names are found in the Tran and Ly dynasty Imperial exam records.
Ethnic Chinese are recorded in Tran and Ly dynasty records of officials.
Clothing, food, and language were all Chinese dominated in Van Don where the Tran had moved to after leaving their home province of Fujian. The Chinese language could still be spoken by the Tran in Vietnam.
The oceanside area of Vietnam was colonized by Chinese migrants from Fujian which included the Tran among them located to the capital's southeastern area.[36][37] The Red River Delta was subjected to migration from Fujian including the Tran and Van Don port arose as a result of this interaction.[38] Guangdong and Fujian Chinese moved to the Halong located Van Don coastal port during Ly Anh Tong's rule in order to engage in commerce. The usurpation of the Ly occurred after they married with the fishing Fujianese Tran family.
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In 1257 the Trần dynasty was faced with the first Mongol invasion of Đại Việt.[41] At the beginning of the war, the Đại Việt army suffered several defeats by an overwhelming force that had already conquered a vast area in Asia. Several high-ranking officials of the Trần dynasty were so fearful that Prince Khâm Thiên Trần Nhật Hiệu, the younger brother of Thái Tông, even suggested to the Emperor that they might escape from Đại Việt to the Song dynasty.[42] Due to the firm faith of Emperor Thái Tông, grand chancellor Trần Thủ Độ, and talented generals such as Prince Hưng Đạo Trần Quốc Tuấn and Lê Phụ Trần, the Trần dynasty was able to drive back the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace in Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257.
In the twelfth lunar month of 1284, the second Yuan invasion of Đại Việt was launched under the command of Kublai Khan's prince Toghon.[45] Đại Việt was attacked from two directions, with Toghan himself conducting an infantry invasion from the northern border while the Yuan navy under general Sogetu advanced from the southern border through the territory of Champa.[46] Initially, Trần Thánh Tông and Trần Nhân Tông had to order the army to retreat to avoid the pressure from the Yuan force when Prince Chiêu Minh Trần Quang Khải commanded his troops to try to stop Sogetu's fleet in the province of Nghệ An.
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Meanwhile, several high-ranking officials and members of the royal family of the Trần dynasty defected to the Yuan side, including Thánh Tông's own brother, Prince Chiêu Quốc (Trần Ích Tắc) and Trần Kiện, who was the son of Prince Tĩnh Quốc (Trần Quốc Khang). To ensure the safety of Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông during their retreat, Princess An Tư was offered as a present and diversion for prince Toghan, while Marquis Bảo Nghĩa (Trần Bình Trọng) was captured and later killed in the Battle of Đà Mạc defending the two emperors.[47] At the southern border, Trần Quang Khải also had to retreat under the pressure of Sogetu's navy and the defection of the governor of Nghe An.
This critical situation for the Trần dynasty began to change after their victory in the fourth lunar month of 1285 at the Battle of Hàm Tử, where the troops commanded by Trần Nhật Duật, Prince Chiêu Thành, Trần Quốc Toản, and Nguyễn Khoái were finally able to defeat the fleet of general Sogetu. On the tenth day of the fifth lunar month of 1285, Trần Quang Khải fought the decisive battle in the Chương Dương, where the Yuan navy was almost destroyed and the balance in the battlefield tilted definitively in favor of the Trần dynasty.[48][49] Ten days later Sogetu was killed and the Trần Emperor Nhân Tông and Emperor Emeritus Thánh Tông returned to the capital, Thăng Long, on the sixth day of the sixth lunar month, 1285.
In the third lunar month of 1287, the Yuan dynasty launched their third invasion of Đại Việt.[51] This time, unlike the second invasion, commander-in-chief Prince Hưng Đạo (Trần Quốc Tuấn) assured the Emperor that Đại Việt's army could easily break the Yuan military campaign. This invasion was indeed ended one year later by a disastrous defeat of the Yuan navy at the Battle of Bạch Đằng on the eighth day of the third lunar month, 1288.[52] Besides Trần Quốc Tuấn, other notable generals of the Trần dynasty during this time were Prince Nhân Huệ Trần Khánh Dư, who destroyed the logistics convoy of the Yuan navy[53][54][55][56] at the Battle of Vân Đồn, and general Phạm Ngũ Lão, who took charge of ambushing prince Toghan's retreating troops.
Professor Liam Kelley noted that people from Song dynasty China like Zhao Zhong and Xu Zongdao fled to Tran dynasty ruled Vietnam after the Mongol invasion of the Song and they helped the Tran fight against the Mongol invasion. The Tran dynasty originated from the Fujian region of China as did the Daoist cleric Xu Zongdao who recorded the Mongol invasion and referred to them as "Northern bandits".
Wu Bozong 吳伯宗 (b. 1334- d. 1384) was sent as ambassador to Annam and wrote down in the Rongjinji 榮進集 that the Tran dynasty monarch said to him in a reply his Wu's inquiry on Annam's affairs where the Tran ruler said that Annam proudly adhered to Tang dynasty and Han dynasty customs.
欲問安南事，
安南風俗淳。
衣冠唐制度，
禮樂漢君臣。
玉甕開新酒，
金刀斫細鱗。
年年二三月，
桃李一般春。
After the three invasions, the people of Đại Việt were finally able to enjoy a long period of prosperity and peace during the reigns of Trần Anh Tông, Trần Minh Tông, and Trần Hiến Tông.[60][61] Anh Tông was the first Trần emperor to reign without facing attacks from the Mongol Empire.
Despite the deaths of the two most important generals of the early Trần dynasty, Trần Quang Khải in 1294 and Trần Quốc Tuấn in 1300, the Emperor was still served by many efficient mandarins like Trần Nhật Duật, Đoàn Nhữ Hài, Phạm Ngũ Lão, Trương Hán Siêu, Mạc Đĩnh Chi, and Nguyễn Trung Ngạn. Anh Tông was very strict in suppressing gambling and corruption, but he also generously rewarded those who served him well.
In 1306, the king of Champa, Chế Mân, offered Vietnam two Cham prefectures, Ô and Lý, in exchange for a marriage with the Vietnamese princess Huyền Trân.[63] Anh Tông accepted this offer, then took and renamed Ô prefecture and Lý prefecture to Thuận prefecture and Hóa prefecture.
The civilization of Dongson flourised in North Vietnam. It developed from a series of consecutively related culture complexes that began at the end of the third millennium B.C. with Phung Nguyen, a settlement in the valley and plain of Hong River in Vinh Phu province, north-west of Hanoi. The Phung Nguyen, a late neolithic and early bronze culture developed into Dong Dau about the middle of the second millennium B.C. and Go Mun, in turn, evolved directly into the Dongson culture. The first excavated drums came from the site of Dongson, in Than Hoa province south of Hanoi by M.Pajot in 1924. Goloubew dated the early type of drum (Heger Type I) to the middle or the second half of the first century A.D. Afterwards Dongson bronze drums were reported from South China, Thailand, Laos, West Malaysia, and Indonesia as far east as western Irinian Java.Largest concentration of the drums is from northern Vietnam.
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These two prefectures soon began to be referred to collectively as the Thuận Hóa region.[63] Only one year into the marriage, Chế Mân died and, in line with the royal tradition of Champa, Huyền Trân was to be cremated with her husband. Facing this urgent condition, Anh Tông sent his mandarin Trần Khắc Chung to Champa to save Huyền Trân from an imminent death. Finally Huyền Trân was able to return to Đại Việt, but Chế Chí, the successor of Chế Mân, no longer wished to abide by the peace treaty with Đại Việt.
After that event, Anh Tông himself, along with the generals Trần Quốc Chân and Trần Khánh Dư, commanded three groups of Đại Việt military units to attack Champa in 1312. Chế Chí was defeated and captured in this invasion,[64] and Anh Tông installed a hand-picked successor, but the relations between Đại Việt and Champa remained strained for a long time afterwards.
After the death of the Retired Emperor Trần Minh Tông in 1357, the Trần dynasty began to fall into chaos during the reign of Trần Dụ Tông. While being modest and diligent under the regency of Minh Tông, the reign of Emperor Dụ Tông saw extravagant spending on the building of several luxurious palaces and other indulgences.
Dụ Tông introduced theatre, which was considered at the time to be a shameful pleasure, into the royal court.[69] The Emperor died on the 25th day of the fifth lunar month, 1369, at the age of 28, after appointing his brother's son Dương Nhật Lễ despite the fact that his appointee was not from the Trần clan.
Like his predecessor Dụ Tông, Nhật Lễ neglected his administrative duties and concentrated only on drinking, theatre, and wandering. He even wanted to change his family name back to Dương. Such activities disappointed everyone in the royal court. This prompted the Prime Minister Trần Nguyên Trác and his son Trần Nguyên Tiết to plot the assassination of Nhật Lễ, but their conspiracy was discovered by the Emperor and they were killed afterwards.
In the tenth lunar month of 1370, the Emperor's father-in-law, Trần Phủ, after receiving advice from several mandarins and members of the royal family, decided to raise an army for the purpose of overthrowing Nhật Lễ. After one month, his plan succeeded and Trần Phủ became the new emperor of Đại Việt, ruling as Trần Nghệ Tông, while Nhật Lễ was downgraded to Duke of Hôn Đức (Hôn Đức Công) and was killed afterwards by an order of Nghệ Tông.
After the death of Hôn Đức Công, his mother fled to Champa and begged King Chế Bồng Nga to attack Đại Việt. Taking advantage of his neighbour's lack of political stability, Chế Bồng Nga commanded troops and directly assaulted Thăng Long, the capital of Đại Việt. The Trần army could not withstand this attack and the Trần royal court had to escape from Thăng Long, creating an opportunity for Chế Bồng Nga to violently loot the capital before withdrawing. In the twelfth lunar month of 1376 the Emperor Trần Duệ Tông decided to personally command a military campaign against Champa.
Eventually, the campaign was ended by a disastrous defeat of Đại Việt's army at the Battle of Đồ Bàn, when the Emperor himself, along with many high-ranking madarins and generals of the Trần dynasty, were killed by the Cham forces.[76] The successor of Duệ Tông, Trần Phế Đế, and the retired Emperor Nghệ Tông, were unable to drive back any invasion of Chế Bồng Nga in Đại Việt.
Helmet under Tran dynasty from
13th to 15th century with many forms like Đâu-Mâu 兜 鍪 or Khôi-Mạo 盔 帽 is
holding a pointed high crest with plume , or Phượng-Dực Mạo 鳳 翊 帽
As a result, Nghệ Tông even decided to hide money in Lạng Sơn, fearing that Chế Bồng Nga's troops might assault and destroy the royal palace in Thăng Long.
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In 1389 general Trần Khát Chân was appointed by Nghệ Tông to take charge of stopping Champa.
In the first lunar month of 1390, Trần Khát Chân had a decisive victory over Champa which resulted in the death of Chế Bồng Nga and stabilised situation in the southern part of Đại Việt.[80]
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During the reign of Trần Nghệ Tông, Hồ Quý Ly, an official who had two aunts entitled as consorts of Minh Tông,[81] was appointed to one of the highest positions in the royal court.
Despite his complicity in the death of the Emperor Duệ Tông, Hồ Quý Ly still had Nghệ Tông's confidence and came to hold more and more power in royal court.
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Facing the unstoppable rise of Hồ Quý Ly in the court, the Emperor Trần Phế Đế plotted with minister Trần Ngạc to reduce Hồ Quý Ly's power, but Hồ Quý Ly pre-empted this plot by a defamation campaign against the Emperor which ultimately made Nghệ Tông decide to replace him by Trần Thuận Tông and downgrade Phế Đế to Prince Linh Đức in December 1388.
Trần Nghệ Tông died on the 15th day of the twelfth lunar month, 1394 at the age of 73 leaving the royal court in the total control of Hồ Quý Ly.
He began to reform the administrative and examination systems of the Trần dynasty and eventually obliged Thuận Tông to change the capital from Thăng Long to Thanh Hóa in January 1397.
On the full moon of the third lunar month, 1398, under pressure from Hồ Quý Ly, Thuận Tông, had to cede the throne to his three-year-old son Trần An, now Trần Thiếu Đế, and held the title Retired Emperor at the age of only 20. Only one year after his resignation, Thuận Tông was killed on the orders of Hồ Quý Ly.
Hồ Quý Ly also authorised the execution of over 370 persons who opposed his dominance in the royal court, including several prominent mandarins and the Emperor's relatives together with their families, such as Trần Khát Chân, Trần Hãng, Phạm Khả Vĩnh and Lương Nguyên Bưu.
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The end of the Trần dynasty came on the 28th day of the second lunar month (Gregorian: March 23) 1400, when Hồ Quý Ly decided to overthrow Thiếu Đế and established a new dynasty, the Hồ dynasty.
Being Hồ Quý Ly's own grandson, Thiếu Đế was downgraded to Prince Bảo Ninh instead of being killed like his father.The Hồ clan originated in Zhejiang province of China.
To restore the country's economy, which had been heavily damaged during the turbulent time at the end of the Lý dynasty, Emperor Trần Thái Tông decided to reform the nation's system of taxation by introducing a new personal tax (thuế thân), which was levied on each person according to the area of cultivated land owned.
For example, a farmer who owned one or two mẫu, equal to 3,600 to 7,200 square metres (39,000 to 78,000 sq ft), had to pay one quan per year, while another with up to four mẫus had to pay two quan.
Besides personal taxes, farmers were obliged to pay a land tax in measures of rice that was calculated by land classification.
One historical book reveals that the Trần dynasty taxed everything from fish and fruits to betel.
Taxpayers were divided into three categories: minors (tiểu hoàng nam, from 18 to 20), adults (đại hoàng nam, from 20 to 60), and seniors (lão hạng, over 60).
During the reign of Trần Thánh Tông members of the Trần clan and royal family were required by the Emperor to take full advantage of their land grants by hiring the poor to cultivate them.
Đại Việt's cultivated land was annually ruined by river floods, so for a more stable agriculture, in 1244 Trần Thái Tông ordered his subordinates to construct a new system of levees along the Red River.
Farmers who had to sacrifice their land for the diking were compensated with the value of the land.
The Emperor also appointed a separate official to control the system.
There is evidence for the use of feng shui by Trần dynasty officials, such as in 1248 when Trần Thủ Độ ordered several feng shui masters to block many spots over the country for the purpose of protecting the newly founded Trần dynasty from its opponents.
Achievements in science during the Trần dynasty were not detailed in historical accounts, though a notable scientist named Đặng Lộ was mentioned several times in Đại Việt sử kí toàn thư.
It was said that Đặng Lộ was appointed by Retired Emperor Minh Tông to the position of national inspector (liêm phóng sứ) but he was noted for his invention called lung linh nghi which was a type of armillary sphere for astronomic measurement.
From the result in observation, Đặng Lộ successfully persuaded the emperor to modify the calendar in 1339 for a better fit with the agricultural seasons in Đại Việt.
Marquis Trần Nguyên Đán, a superior of Đặng Lộ in the royal court, was also an expert in calendar calculation.
Near the end of the Trần dynasty the technology of gunpowder appeared in the historical records of Đại Việt and was responsible for the death of the King of Champa, Chế Bồng Nga, after the Trần general Trần Khát Chân fired a cannon at his battleship in January 1390.
According to the NUS researcher Sun Laichen, the Trần dynasty acquired gunpowder technology from China and effectively used it to change the balance of power between Đại Việt and Champa in favour of Đại Việt.
As a result of this Sun reasoned that the need for copper for manufacturing firearms was probably another reason for the order of Hồ Quý Ly to change from copper coins to paper money in 1396.
The people of the Trần dynasty and later Hồ dynasty were not satisfied with the imported technology and continued to improve their firearms using gunpowder.
The development of Đại Việt technology in using gunpowder resulted in weapons of superior quality to their Chinese counterparts. These were acquired by the Ming dynasty in their invasion of Đại Việt.
During the rule of the Trần dynasty, medicine had a better chance to develop because of a more significant role of Confucianism in society.
In 1261, the emperor issued an order to establish the Institute of Royal Physicians (Thái y viện) which took charge of managing medicine in Đại Việt, carrying out the examination for new physicians and treating people during disease epidemics.
In 1265 the institute distributed a pill named Hồng ngọc sương to the poor, which they considered able to cure many diseases.
Besides the traditional Northern herbs (thuốc Bắc), Trần physicians also began to cultivate and gather various regional medicinal herbs (thuốc Nam) for treating both civilians and soldiers.
During the reign of Trần Minh Tông the head of the Institute of Royal Physicians Phạm Công Bân was widely known for his medical ethics, treating patients regardless of their descent with his own medicine made from regional herbs; it was said that Phạm Công Bân gathered his remedies in a medical book named Thái y dịch bệnh (Diseases by the Royal Physician).
Another Trần person and fellow countryman of Phạm Công Bân was the monk Tuệ Tĩnh, one of the most famous physicians in Vietnamese history, who was called "Father of the Southern Medicine" for creating the basis of Vietnamese traditional medicine with his works Hồng nghĩa giác tư y thư and Nam dược thần hiệu.
Nam dược thần hiệu was a collection of 499 manuscripts about local herbs and ten branches of treatment with 3932 prescriptions to cure 184 type of diseases while Hồng nghĩa giác tư y thư provided people with many simple, easy-to-prepare medicines with high effect.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty
To begin with, he came fourth in the imperial civil service exam - quite an achievement, as Frances Wood, curator of the Chinese collection at the British Library explains.
"There were a series - you have local exams, provincial exams, and then the central imperial exam, so you've got lots of people falling by the wayside at the local exams or the provincial exams, so absolutely the creme de la creme get through to even take the central imperial examinations.
"So to come fourth in the whole of China… think of the size of China. To come fourth out of thousands? Tens of thousands of people? It's absolutely massive."
For centuries the civil service was almost the only way to a better life and families gambled all on getting their sons in.
Some candidates had to spend three days and nights in an examination cell measuring 6ft by 3ft (1.8m by 0.9m), the culmination of years of rote learning.
"The civil service exams developed over the centuries," says Wood.
"The essays were largely to do with the content of the Confucian classics - how do you rule the people? You rule them through good, you rule them through example. It's morality that they're being examined on - their ability to cough up gobbets of Confucian morality."
The successful Wang Anshi was sent off to administer a southern entrepreneurial city.
You can imagine him on an inspection tour, peering out through the silk curtains of his sedan chair at the stallholders and hawkers.
But after 20 years of this, it was clear to him that writing essays about Confucian virtue just wasn't relevant any more. A civil servant needed a different skill set.
"Under the previous dynasties, the cities were fairly rigidly controlled. Markets were held on fixed days, on fixed points and so on," says Wood.
"By the Song dynasty, you begin to get ordinary city life as we know it. Cities are much freer, so commerce is much freer."
The Chinese economy was far more commercialised than it had ever been before, says Peter Bol of Harvard University, who has written about this period.
"The money supply has increased 30-fold. The merchant networks have spread. Villages are moving away from self-sufficiency and getting connected to a cash economy.
"The government no longer controls the economic hierarchy, which is largely in private hands... it's a far richer world than ever before."
Wang Anshi (1021-1086)
Qualified aged 21 as an "advanced scholar" in the civil service examinations.
Wrote a 10,000-word memo to Emperor Rensong in 1058 arguing that China's officials were not fit for purpose, and needed better training.
Appointed as privy counsellor in 1067, he began to roll out "new policies".
As an economic stimulus, he introduced government loans for farmers, and pumped money into the economy by minting coins.
He irritated conservatives by carrying out a land survey to reassess property taxes.
He did away with recitation of classics and poetry composition in the civil service exams, instead putting an emphasis on law, medicine and military science. Resigned in 1074, returned to civil service in 1075, then retired for good in 1076 to write poetry.
But all this created problems. As large land-owning estates grew, so did the number of people who were unwilling to pay their taxes - and the more rich people evaded tax, the more the burden fell on the poor. There was also problem with the neighbours.
The Song emperors often found themselves at war on their northern borders. Jin and Mongol invaders were annexing Chinese land, so lots of money had to be spent on defence, and inflation took hold.
The dynasty was plunged into crisis. But cometh the hour, cometh Wang Anshi, and his programme for a new style of government.
"The pressure of hostile forces on the borders is a constant menace. The resources of the Empire are rapidly approaching exhaustion, and public life is getting more and more decadent," he wrote to the emperor.
"There never has been such a scarcity of capable men in the service of the State. Even if they should go on learning in school until their hair turned grey, they would have only the vaguest notion of what to do in office.
"No matter how fine the orders of the Court, the benefit is never realised by the people because of the incapacity of local officials.
Moreover, some take advantage of these orders to carry on corrupt practices," said Wang Anshi.
In 1067 a young emperor came to the throne, hungry for new ideas, and Wang Anshi got his chance.
Once in the top ranks of the civil service, Wang Anshi set about diluting Confucius and surrounding himself with like-minded men. Morality was out, maths and medicine were in.
"He was trying to reform the examination system," says Xun Zhou, a historian at Hong Kong university. "So he got rid of some of the subjects. He introduced more practical subjects, so that enabled people with practical skills into the government."
Archaeologists exploring the remote mesas of northern Arizona have uncovered a trove of previously undocumented rock art, including more than 1,500 petroglyphs, and confirmed the presence a prehistoric solar calendar, which has been marking the seasons for more than 700 years with a striking “shadow dagger” that travels across its sandstone face. Researchers made these finds in the backcountry of Wupatki National Monument northeast of Flagstaff, which includes the ruins of dozens of sites built by Ancestral Puebloans known as the Kayenta and the Sinagua. Over nearly two years, including many special visits to watch the interplay of sunlight at certain spots during equinoxes and solstices, the researchers combed areas known as Horseshoe Mesa, Middle Mesa, and an unnamed landform that they dubbed Little Mesa. In that time, they documented 122 panels of petroglyphs at Horseshoe Mesa — 50 of which had never been recorded before — and 107 panels at Middle Mesa, 88 of which were new to scientists. Many of the panels contained several, sometimes dozens, of individual petroglyphs, resulting in more than 1,500 separate glyphs being recorded for the first time. The most recent markings include graffiti made by American travelers in the late 1800s, and historic-era images of horses, barns, and cattle, sometimes with visible brands, scratched into the rock by Navajo inhabitants. http://westerndigs.org/thousands-of-ancient-petroglyphs-including-dramatic-solar-calendar-found-in-northern-arizona/
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As is often the case, the good man comes up against entrenched, corrupt bureaucrats who didn't want any changes and they turned the emperor against him.
And once they were in, Wang Anshi asked them practical questions. How can we improve education? How can we improve agriculture? How can we provide credit to farmers?
How can we ensure a flow of goods? The British TV comedy Yes Minister was a big hit when it was broadcast on China's state television.
It was subtitled in Chinese but everyone here understood the rigidity, self interest, buckpassing, and infighting at its heart.
The civil service has a way of doing things, and in the 11th Century Wang Anshi was turning it upside down, asking the mandarins to roll up their sleeves and manage every corner of the economy. He wanted state loans for farmers, more taxes for landowners, centralised procurement.
But he was not watching his back. He was too sure of himself and too focused on the big picture. Then events - a drought and a famine - overtook him. It was the opportunity his rivals had been waiting for.
"You have this clash between someone who is obviously very bright, very brilliant, and then he's faced with these corrupt people who've managed to buy their way in," says Frances Wood. "As is often the case, the good man comes up against entrenched, corrupt bureaucrats who didn't want any changes and they turned the emperor against him."
"If the emperor perceives that there's a group of people, a group can grow into something bigger, and I think it's almost more dangerous to be part of a group than it is to be a lone figure crying wolf," says Wood.
"Because you're disgraced, but you can't be accused of being a conspirator."
So it's a difficult game to be a reformist in China. It's safer to stick with the prevailing wisdom, and keep your head down.
Wang Anshi retired in 1076, depressed by demotion and the death of his son. He spent the final years of his life writing poetry.
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19962432
Zhuàngyuán, or trạng nguyên in Vietnamese, variously translated into English as principal graduate, primus, or optimus, was the title given to the scholar who achieved the highest score on highest level of the Imperial examination,省試 [ja](in Tang) and 殿試 [zh](in Song)[2] in ancient China and Vietnam.
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Fu Shanxiang is known as the first (and last) female zhuangyuan (nü zhuangyuan) in Chinese history, but under the Taiping Tianguo, not the regular imperial exams. After the Taipings captured the city of Nanjing, they offered an exam for women in January 1853 in which Fu attained the highest score.
Noteworthy Trạng nguyên
Lê Văn Thịnh, the first trạng nguyên in history.
Lý Đạo Tái (Huyền Quang)
Mạc Đĩnh Chi
Nguyễn Trực
Phạm Đôn Lễ
Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm
Nguyễn Đăng Đạo
Trịnh Tuệ
Phan Đình Phùng
Nguyễn Phong Di, the last trạng nguyên in history.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuangyuan
The Confucian court examination system in Vietnam (Chinese: 越南科舉制度, Vietnamese : Chế-độ khoa-cử Việt-nam ; 1075 – 1913) was a system for entry into the civil service modelled on the Imperial examination in China, based on knowledge of the classics and literary style.
The exams entered Vietnam during the long era of Chinese occupation and adopted by subsequent independent dynasties as a way of filling the civil service. They were instituted at court level by the Lý Dynasty's Emperor Lý Nhân Tông in 1075 and continued some 1000 years later toward the final years of the Nguyễn Dynasty's Emperor Khải Định.
Nemertea is a phylum of invertebrate animals also known as Ribbon worms. They are also known as Proboscis worms because they can extend a proboscis to capture their food. There are about 1,400 species of ribbon worms nearly all of which are found in oceans around the world. Most species live on or in the sea floor, with many species found in brackish water in estuaries, and even some freshwater and land-based species. Their habitats include - in and among seaweeds, rocks, mussel and barnacle beds, under shells or buried in mud, sand, or gravel substrates. They have a similar appearance to flatworms although they usually are larger, thicker-bodied, and longer. The largest species may grow to several metres or more but some species are less than 20 cm in length, and some just five millimetres long. Most species are pale, some are brightly coloured with patterns of yellow, orange, red and green. Nemertea have long, thin, unsegmented bodies. They have no true head and have an eversible (can be turned inside out) proboscis which is used for catching prey. They have a digestive system which includes a mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestine and anus. Most nemerteans are carnivores and predators, although some are scavengers and others are herbivores. They catch their prey with their proboscis which is wrapped around the prey which is then stabbed until it is dead. In some species the proboscis has a sharp part attached (a stylet). In some species the stylet contains a poison to kill prey faster. Mot species have males and females which release sperm and eggs into the water. Only some species produce larvae, the majority produce offspring which resemble the adults. http://www.mesa.edu.au/marine_worms/marine_worms07.asp
The examinations were suspended by the French in 1913 with the very last local exams occurring from 1915 to 1919, thus making Vietnam the last country to hold Confucian civil service examinations.
In 1428, legend has it that Emperor Le Loi obtained a magical sword from the Dragon King to fight against Chinese oppressors. The sword, as you may have guessed, came from Hoan Kiem lake. After the successful battle against the Chinese invaders, Emperor Le Loi visited the beautiful lake. He was boating through the still waters when an enormous golden turtle surfaced. The turtle explained that he was sent by his master, the Dragon King, to retrieve the sword from Le Loi. Loi returned the sword to the turtle, who swam back beneath the jade waters. Loi then named the area Hoan Kiem lake, meaning “Lake of the Returned Sword” to commemorate the spectacular event. Turtle Tower lies on an island in the middle of the lake. After the gigantic turtle reclaimed the sword for its master, turtles began to be revered around Hoan Kiem lake. There was one turtle living in the water that was thought to be the incarnation of the mythical turtle Le Loi met in 1428. Affectionately named Cu Rua, the massive turtle was thought to be one of four Yangtze giant soft-shell turtles in the entire world. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/vietnam/articles/hoan-kiem-lake-hanoi-what-to-know-and-do/
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The royal court exams were typically held every three years, though the award of first prizes was far less frequent. The examination system was divided into a regional and a national examination held at the royal capital. Provincial examinations led only to the degree of tú tài (秀才 junior bachelor) and cử nhân (舉人 senior bachelor). From 1829 a provincial mandarin could progress to phó bảng, the lowest level of national exam, under the scholars with the rank of tiến sĩ.
The examinations themselves were composed of three or four tests, followed by a phúc hạch or control examination to confirm identity. Aside from accrediting rank and file scholars to the court and mandarin civil service positions gleaned from the successful regional candidates, the exams also appointed lead scholars for the court exam (Thi Đình) in the capital, the title of trạng nguyên. This title was first awarded to Lê Văn Thịnh (d.1096).
Subsequent exams starting in 1247 and onward were divided into three first class grades along the Chinese model with trạng nguyên as the first of three prizes. The first trạng nguyên under this system was Nguyễn Hiền.
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The full list of trạng nguyên therefore includes 55 scholars if beginning from Lê Văn Thịnh, but only 49 if commencing from Nguyễn Hiền (awarded 1247, in the reign of Trần Thái Tông).
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The three titles were as follows :
Trạng nguyên (狀元) – first place, reserved for the best scholar
Bảng nhãn (榜眼) – second place
Thám hoa (探花) – third place
Tiến sĩ (進士) – all the other successful applicants
The list of trạng nguyên includes several notable figures in Vietnam's history, such as Mạc Đĩnh Chi (awarded 1304, in the reign of Trần Anh Tông) and Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (awarded 1535, in the reign of Mạc Thái Tông). The last trạng nguyên was awarded to Trịnh Tuệ in 1736 during the reign of Lê Ý Tông.
"The classical examination system was divided into a regional and a general examination (the last one was organized at the royal capital). The first led to the degree of tu tai (junior bachelor) and cu nhan (senior bachelor), the second to pho bang (junior doctor) and tien si (senior doctor). After the abolition of the examination system in 1913, the French introduced a new system, but ..."
Truong Buu Lâm, New lamps for old: the transformation of the Vietnamese ... -Institute of Southeast Asian Studies – 1982 Page 11- "The provincial examinations consisted of three to four parts which tested the following areas: knowledge of the Confucian texts...The title of cu nhan or "person presented" (for office) was conferred on those who succeeded in all four tests."
" For those successful in the court competitive examination four titles were awarded: trang nguyen, being the first- rank doctorate and first laureate, bang nhan, being a first-rank doctorate and second laureate; tham hoa, being a first-rank ..."...
https://www.revolvy.com/page/Confucian-court-examination-system-in-Vietnam?smv=26633658&cr=1
Imperial China employed a civil examination system to select scholar bureau-crats as ruling elites. This institution dissuaded high-performing individuals frompursuing some modernization activities, such as establishing modern rms or study-ing overseas. This study uses prefecture-level panel data from 1896-1910 to compare the effects of the chance of passing the civil examination on modernization before and after the abolition of the examination system.
Its ndings show that prefec-tures with higher quotas of successful candidates tended to establish more modern rms and send more students to Japan once the examination system was abolished.
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As higher quotas were assigned to prefectures that had an agricultural tax in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643) of more than 150,000 stones, I adopt a regression dis-continuity design to generate an instrument to resolve the potential endogeneity,and nd that the results remain robust. Rent seeking is costly to economic growth if \the ablest young people become rent seekers than producers" (Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny 1991: 529).
Theoretical studies suggest that if a society speci es a higher payoff for rent seeking rather than productive activi-ties, more talent would be allocated in unproductive directions (Acemoglu 1995; Baumol 1990; Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny 1991, 1993). This was the case in late Imperial China, when a large part of the ruling class { scholar bureaucrats { was selected on the basis of the imperial civil examination.
The Chinese elites were provided with great incentives to invest in a traditional education and take the civil examination, and hence few in-centives to study other \useful knowledge" (Kuznets 1965), such as Western science and technology. Thus the civil examination constituted an institutional obstacle to the rise of modern science and industry (Baumol 1990; Clark and Feenstra 2003; Huff 2003; Lin1995).
This paper identi es the negative incentive effect of the civil exam on modernization by exploring the impact of the system's abolition in 1904-05.
The main empirical difficulty is that the abolition was universal, with no regional variation in policy implementation. To better understand the modernizing effect of the system's abolition, I employ a simple conceptual framework that incorporates two choices open to Chinese elites: to learn from the West and pursue some modernization activities or to invest in preparing for the civil examination.
In this model, the elites with a greater chance of passing the examination would be less likely to learn from the West; they would tend to pursue more modernization activities after its abolition.
Accordingly, the regions with a higher chance of passing the exam should be those with a larger increase in modernization activities after the abolition, which makes it possible to employ a difference-in-differences (DID) method to identify the causal effect of abolishing the civil examination on modernization. I exploit the variation in the probability of passing the examination among prefectures { an administrative level between the provincial and county levels.
To control the regional composition of successful candidates, the central government of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) allocated a quota of successful candidates to each prefecture. In terms of the chances of individual participants { measured by the ratio of quotas to population {there were great inequalities among the regions (Chang 1955).
To measure the level of modernization activities in a region, I employ (1) the number of newly modern private rms (per million inhabitants) above a designated size that has equipping steam engineor electricity as a proxy for the adoption of Western technology and (2) the number of new Chinese students in Japan { the most import host country of Chinese overseas students (per million inhabitants) as a proxy of learning Western science.
Though the two measures might capture other things, for instance entrepreneurship or human capital accumulation, the two activities are both intense in modern science and technology, and thus employed as the proxies of modernization. Our empirical results show that the prefectures with higher quotas tended to establish more modern enterprises and send more students to Japan once the decision to abolish the examination system was taken.
Evaluated at the sample mean, a one-standard deviation increase in the logged-quota density (0.70) would lead to 0.23 new modern rms and 0.66 students to Japan per year.
The empirical results remain robust after controlling for geographical factors, population, the level of urbanization, and Western penetration and employing different model speci cation.
Moreover, I estimate the yearly correlation between the logged-quota density and the density of modernization activities, and that the correlation before the abolition remains stable, but suddenly increases after the abolition.
However, it is possible that the quotas are correlated with other omitted variables, such as political connectedness, whose effects may also have changed after the system's abolition.
To correct such biases and resolve the potential endogeneity, we employ a fuzzy regression discontinuity (RD) design: in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643), the prefectures with an agricultural tax that exceeded 150,000 stones were classi ed as \important."
Higher quotas were allocated to the \important" prefectures in the early Qing Dynasty (1644-1910). Mid-way through the period, a new rule for classifying regions by importance was adopted, but the quotas remained stable throughout the Qing Dynasty. Thus, we exploit the discontinuity in the expected value of quotas as an instrumental variable to identify the causal effect of quotas. The results still show that the effect of logged-quota density signi cantly increases after the abolition of the civil exam.
This study can help us understand why China failed to undergo an industrial revo-lution and sustained growth, given its economic leadership in the 14th century and evenin the 18th (Allen 2009; Maddison 1998, 2001; Pomeranz 2000). Landes (2006) describestwo opportunities that China missed: to (1) generate a self-sustaining process of techno-logical advancement based on its achievements and (2) to learn from European technologyonce foreigners had entered the Chinese domain.
This paper empirically identi es the effects of the second missed opportunity and supports the extant hypothesis that the civil examination constituted an institutional obstacle to the rise of modern science and industry (Huff 2003; Lin 1995). I provide a counterfactual case to estimate the gap in the capacities of steam engine between Britain and China, which shows that China's capac-ity would have been larger than Britain's during the First Opium War (1839-41) if the civil examination had been abolished before 1813-27. Though the counterfactual case is limited, it provides a sense of the role of the civil exam as the barrier of modernization.
Moreover, it enhances our general understanding of the role played by institutions in economic development, and sheds light on the reasons for the great divergence in technological expertise and per capita income seen around the world in the past centuries. Institutions, and the incentives they create, determine the economic outcomes of a society (North 1990, 1994). The recent literature suggests that good institutions,including secure property rights.
In AD 605, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty (581-618) established the imperial examina-tion system, through which intellectuals were formally selected to become officials (Keay 2009). Although the system was used on a small scale during this and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618-907), it was expanded under the Song Dynasty (960-1276) (Chaffee 1995).
After being interrupted during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1276-1368), the exam-ination system became the primary channel for recruiting government officials during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1910) Dynasties (Ebrey 1999; Elman 2000; Ho 1962). The system was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureau-cracy using a test of educational merit, and created a class of scholar bureaucrats that was independent of family status (Elman 2000; Ho 1962).
The system helped the centragovernment capture and hold the loyalty of local-level elites (Man-Cheong 2004), selected suitable and efficient managerial elites (Elman 2000), and created cultural uniformity and consensus on basic values (Elman 1990, 1991).
After more than 1,200 years of using the exam system, the introduction of Western knowledge systems led to a series of reforms after the First and Second Opium Wars and the decline of the imperial examination system.
Franke (1960) gives a detailed description of this phase of history. After the Siege of the International Legations during the Boxer Uprising in 1900, the Empress Dowager Cixi was forced to reform the traditional examination system.
She abolished the eight-legged essay in 1901, but retained the three-level examination structures.
In late 1903 and early 1904, the Committee on Education submitted a memorandum urging the abolition of the examination system, and they received imperial approval on January 13, 1904. This led to the decisive abolition of the examination system.
On September 2, 1905, The Empress Dowager Cixi endorsed a memorandum ordering the discontinuance of the old examination system at all levels in the following year.The structure and process of the civil examination system remained stable during Qing dynasty. There were three stages of testing:
(1) the biennial licensing examination(Yuankao in Chinese), the lowest level, held in the prefectural capital after primary testing in the county seat;
(2) the triennial qualifying examination in the provincial cap-ital (Xiangshi in Chinese); and
(3) the third level in the capital (academy examination, Huikao in Chinese) with re-examination in the imperial palace (palace examination,Di-anshi in Chinese). Successful candidates received a new title at each level and became automatically eligible to attend the next level of examination.
Specically, the candidates who passed the prefecture-level examination were termed Shengyuan or Xiucai (literati), and those who passed the provincial and national level testing were Juren (recommended man, a provincial graduate), and Jinshi (presented scholar, a graduate of the palace examination), respectively.
The contents of all the examinations were dominated by the Confucian classics { the Four Books and the Five Classics (Elman 2000). The examinations were bound by many regulations and presented within strict frameworks.
Form was even more important than content; candidates were required to write eight-legged Confucian essays (Chang 1955;Elman 2000; Yuchtman 2009).
II.A.2. Return
Each of the degrees or titles carried different privileges, prestige, and income (Chang 1955,1962; Elman 1990, 2000; Glahn 1996). Chang (1962) shows that the gentry received about 24 per cent of the national income, even though they constituted only about 2 per cent of the population.
At the lowest level, the candidates who passed the district examination became members of the lower gentry, who were exempted from corporal punishment and corvee (i.e. forced labor), and had the right to wear a scholar's robes.
This degree and title also provided the gentry with the opportunity to manage local affairs, become secretarial assistants to officials, and teach { three important sources of income for Chinese gentry (Chang 1962). The highest possible achievement was to become a government official, which brought great power and prestige.
For instance, the district magistrate had great authority to carry out court orders, collect taxes, and implement central government policies, all of which provided \the greatest opportunity for the rapid accumulation of wealth" (Chang 1962: 7).
Ni and Van (2006) estimate that circa 1873, officials' corrupt income was 14 to 22 times greater than their regular income, resulting in about 22% of the agricultural output being owned by 0.4% of the population.
Chang (1962) estimates that the average regular and extra income of a government official at that time was about 5,000 Tael silver per year. To qualify for appointment to government office, the candidates needed to pass at least the provincial-level examination.
If they passed the higher-level academy or palace exam-inations, they were usually automatically appointed to a government position. In pursuit of the great power and prestige of an official, candidates began studying as young children and on average passed the district examination at 24. They were likely to continue to study for another ten years before passing the provincial and national examinations.
II.B. Quota System
The dynasties distributed these opportunities to become rich according to provincial and prefectural quotas throughout the country \as an institutional means to con ne and reg-ulate the power of elites" (Elman 2000: 140).
The quota system allowed the government to control the size of the gentry class, which consisted exclusively of candidates who had passed the licensing examinations.
In the late empire, only 1.6 to 1.9 percent of thetotal population had gentry status (Chang 1955; Elman 2000).
Furthermore, by using regional quotas, imperial officials could be recruited from the country. The control of the regional composition of the gentry was inherent in the initial stages of the licensing examination system.
By restricting the prefecture or county quotas, the dynasty could control the number and location of candidates entering the official selection process.
The quotas for the higher-level examinations { Juren and Jinshi { were always allocated at the provincial level during the Qing Dynasty.
There was no standard formula for the regional quota, but the size and importance of the administrative units were the key de-terminants (Chang 1955).
Thus the regions were very unequal in terms of opportunities for individual participants.
The empirical study of this paper covers the 262 prefectures of 18 provinces south of Great Wall { the traditional agricultural China (see Figure 1).
During the Qing period, about 90 percent of the country's total population lived in this region.
To exploit the cross-prefecture variation in the chance of passing the exam, I use the quotas for the licensing examination { the lowest level, which was conducted in the prefectural capitals. This prefecture examination was the threshold for obtaining gentry status.
Candidates who passed the district examination became members of the gentry and earned the accompanying privileges and income.
The prefectural level of examination corresponds to our analysis of rms at the prefecture level.
The quotas for successful candidates in these district examinations were assigned to each administrativeunit, prefecture, and county.
To compute this number, we rst combined the gures for the quotas in all administrative units. The Qing Hui Dian Shi Li(Kun 1991) gives the quotas from the beginning to the end of the nineteenth century.
According to Chang (1955), the district examination quotas were stable after 1724, with the biggest change happening during the Taiping Rebellion, when the quota was increased in order to quell the revolt.
Based on our data, the sum of the quotas in the 262 sample prefectures was 29,808 (up from 24,698 before the rebellion).
Figure 2 depicts the geographical distribution of absolute values of quotas for licensing examinations and quota density (quota per million inhabitants). The average prefectural quota was 113.8 (SD = 75.6), and the average quota density is 135.8
(SD = 141.2). The prefecture with the highest chance of passing the exam is Anxi Zhou in Gansu Province (the quota per million inhabitants is 1704.2), and that with the lowest chance is Haimen Ting in Jiangsu Province (the quota per million inhabitants is 8.7). After its defeats in the First (1839-42) and Second (1856-60) Opium Wars, China began to adopt Western technologies and establish modern enterprises.
Apart from the period of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-95), initiated by Qing government officials to acquire military technology and armaments, this adoption was primarily carried out by private rms that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.
I employ the number of mech-anized industrial rms above a designated size as the proxy for measuring the adoption of Western technology.
Chang (1989) compiled ten series of extant materials on Chinese private enterprises and listed all modern rms with their locations and establishment dates.
All rms in this study meet the following ve criteria: (1) they are organized as companies, (2) they have over silver yuan in capital,(3) they use mechanization, (4) they have over 30 employees, and (5) the value of their output is over 50,000 silver yuan.
This gure clearly shows that the rms began in 1848, were negligible before 1878, and started to grow during the height of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-95).
After China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), which marked the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement, the number of newly opened rms suddenly decreased from 18 in 1894 to three in 1895 and six in 1896.
After a period of slow growth (1895-1903), private enterprises sprouted at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China.
For instance, 71 rms opened in 1916, the rst year after the abolition of the imperial civil examinations, and 125 rms were established in 1912, the rst year of the Republic of China.
In addition to establishing modern rms, other activities also related to learning from the West.
For instance, in the late Qing period, more and more educated Chinese left home to study overseas { primarily in Japan, as it was regarded as the most suitable country due to its geographical proximity and cultural similarity. During 1900-11, 90% of the 20,000 overseas Chinese students studied in Japan (Yao 2004).
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5354/aff48b3e7c020b97da856a46e81afa81df3e.pdf
A mandarin (Vietnamese: Quan thái bộc) was a public official in the monarchist days of Vietnam where the system of Imperial examinations and scholar-bureaucrats was adopted under Chinese influence.
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The word comes through the Portuguese mandarim from Malay mantri, a counselor or minister of state; the ultimate origin of the word is the Sanskrit root man-, meaning “to think.”
The Vietnamese word comes from the Chinese word for Guan (or Kuan).
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The Vietnamese mandarin is a title bestowed on people who went through rigorous training and examination in scholastic understanding.
Primarily based on the Chinese standards, examinations included writing, literature, history and mathematics.
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The mandarin, appointed to the royal court, was an honour that came with privileges. There are nine ranks (or classes) in the royal court for a mandarin's advancement, starting with Ninth progressing to First, being the rank of Prime ministers.
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It was considered life time achievements for these mandarins to be named as one of the Quartet Pillars to the royal court.
Royal Quartet Pillars was the four most trusted and highest ranking mandarins to the Emperor.
https://www.facebook.com/annataylormusicangel
Under Gia Long's rule, Vietnamese mandarins followed the later Le Dynasty's structure, which was modified from the Chinese Imperial Court.
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Under Minh Mang's rule, the mandarin system was revised, taken directly from the Manchurian system, and this emperor added the prime and sub-prime ranks to each of the nine levels.
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Traditionally, after a mandarin had served his term, he would retire to his hometown and provided education to the local schools with what he learned at the Royal court.
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Educated Vietnamese peasants could be estimated at 25% prior to the Imperial French days.
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During the French Protectorate days, this number dropped to 10% even though more, non-governmental people were educated abroad, either from England or France.
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This was due to the lack of interest from lower classes or reluctance of the upper class to share their knowledge.
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After Vietnam government offered public and private education, the number of educated peasants increased somewhat, but not to the previous level.
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When Vietnam gained independence from France, an explosive effort was put forth from abroad and by South Vietnam to educate the peasant mass.
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The followings are yearly pay, supplies and subsidies for official robes to serve during audience with the king.
The subsidies for official robes determined the type of materials, or silk, that were used to create the robes.
This was set with the purpose of preventing a lower rank official from obtaining a higher rank official's robe.
First Rank Prime minister: $400 yuan, 300 rice units, $70 yuan for uniforms.
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First Rank minister: $300 yuan, 250 rice units, $60 yuan for uniforms
Second Rank Prime minister: $250 yuan, 200 rice units, $50 yuan for uniforms
Second Rank minister: $180 yuan, 150 rice units, $30 yuan for uniforms
Third Rank Prime minister: $150 yuan, 120 rice units, $20 yuan for uniforms
Third Rank minister: $120 yuan, 90 rice units, $16 yuan for uniforms
Fourth Rank Prime minister: $80 yuan, 60 rice units, $14 yuan for uniforms.
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Fourth Rank minister: $60 yuan, 50 rice units, $10 yuan for uniforms
Fifth Rank Prime minister: $40 yuan, 43 rice units, $9 yuan for uniforms
Fifth Rank minister: $35 yuan, 30 rice units, $8 yuan for uniforms
Six Rank minister: $30 yuan, 25 rice units, $7 yuan for uniforms
Six Rank deputy minister: $30 yuan, 22 rice units, $6 yuan for uniforms
Seven Rank minister: $25 yuan, 20 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Seven Rank deputy minister: $22 yuan, 20 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Eight Rank minister: $20 yuan, 18 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Eight Rank deputy minister: $20 yuan, 18 rice units, $5 yuan for uniforms
Nine Rank minister: $18 yuan, 16 rice units, $4 yuan for uniforms
Nine Rank deputy minister: $18 yuan, 16 rice units, $4 yuan for uniforms
https://sites.google.com/site/vietnamesemartyrs/history/vietnamese-mandarin
What are some of the characteristics of the Imperial Civil Service Examination?
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To select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy.
During French occupation, the monetary unit in Indochina was the Piastre, often referred to as "bac". Eventually, colonial authorities instituted the use of Mexico coins, weighing in at 27.73 grams and later the Dong Duong coin weighing 27 grams. https://saigoneer.com/old-saigon/old-saigon-categories/2931-a-look-at-vietnamese-currency-through-history
This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree.
The Indochina Bank also issued banknotes, with images of three girls in the traditional costumes of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
Neighboring Asian countries such as Japan, Vietnam and Korea also implemented similar systems to draw in their top national talent.
Vietnam’s landscapes in the 1900s feels almost surreal
Established in 605 CE during the Sui Dynasty, the imperial examinations developed and matured during the Tang Dynasty, continuing until their 1905 abolition under the Qing Dynasty, a history of 1,300 years.
Photograph taken by French traveler Gaston Donnet
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The modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.
Sketch of a fortress in Cam Lộ, Quảng Trị, central Vietnam
Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded.
https://saigoneer.com/old-saigon/old-saigon-categories/15893-photos-16-rare-images-of-1900s-vietnam-as-part-of-french-indochina
In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning gentry.
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Ngày 10/4/1862, sau khi mới chiếm được Nam Kỳ, Thiếu tướng Bonard (Tổng chỉ huy liên quân Pháp - Tây Ban Nha) đã ký quyết định xác định tính hợp pháp cho lưu hành đồng bạc Mexicana (Mễ Tây Cơ - Mê Hi Cô), mà dân gian thường gọi là “đồng bạc con cò”. Đến năm 1864, để biểu hiện chủ quyền của mình, Pháp định cho lưu hành đồng 5 Franc của Pháp thay thế đồng Mexicana nhưng thất bại, bởi đồng bạc này đã quá thông dụng; và trong quá trình lưu hành, nếu chỉ dùng số tiền nhỏ, dân gian đành phải chặt đồng bạc thành 4 hoặc thành 5 phần nhỏ để tính như bạc lẻ (hay còn gọi là bạc cắt, sau này qui đổi thành hào) mà vẫn được tín dụng. Trước tình hình đó, áp dụng đạo luật ngày 24/6/1875 của Quốc hội Pháp quy định về sự phát triển của hệ thống ngân hàng thuộc địa, ngày 21/01/1875, Tổng thống Pháp ra sắc lệnh thành lập Banque de l’Indochine (Ngân hàng Đông Dương - chữ Hán viết là Đông Dương Hối lý Ngân hàng), trụ sở đặt tại Paris với số vốn ban đầu là 8 triệu franc. Banque de l’Indochine có các chi nhánh ở Hải Phòng (1885), Hà Nội (1887), Nouméa (1888), Phnompenh và Đà Nẵng (1891), Trung Quốc (1894), Bangkok (1896), Papeet và Singapore (1904), Djibouti (1907)...https://sites.google.com/site/namkyluctinhorg/tac-gia-tac-pham/khong-ro-tac-gia/tien-kim-loai-dhong-duong
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However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination.
1810 - đồng bạc Hispan (một trong những đồng tiền phương Tây đầu tiên lưu hành ở Đông Dương).
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Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were basically abolished and official posts were oftentimes simply sold, which increased corruption and undermined public morale.
The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across the whole of China were taught with the same values.
1885 - đồng bạc: 1 cent
Even though only a small fraction (about 5 percent) of those who attempted the examinations passed them and received titles, the studying and the hope of eventual success on a subsequent examination served to sustain the interest of those who took them.
1885 - đồng bạc: 1 piastre
Those who failed to pass—most of the candidates at any single examination—did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100720201358AApi9CM&guccounter=1
The Qin dynasty (221–207 bce) established the first centralized Chinese bureaucratic empire and thus created the need for an administrative system to staff it.
1910 - đồng bạc: 10 cent
Recruitment into the Qin bureaucracy was based on recommendations by local officials.
1923 - đồng bạc: 5 cent
This system was initially adopted by the succeeding Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), but in 124 bce, under the reign of the Han emperor Wudi, an imperial university was established to train and test officials in the techniques of Confucian government.
1931 - đồng bạc: 1 piastre
The Sui dynasty (581–618) adopted this Han system and applied it in a much more systematic way as a method of official recruitment.
1935 - đồng bạc: 0.5 cent
They also introduced the rule that officials of a prefecture must be appointees of the central government rather than local aristocrats and that the local militia was to be subject to officials of the central government.
1940 - đồng bạc: 1 cent
The Tang dynasty (618–907) created a system of local schools where scholars could pursue their studies.
1942 - đồng bạc: 0.25 cent
Those desiring to enter the upper levels of the bureaucracy then competed in the jinshi exams, which tested a candidate’s knowledge of the Confucian Classics.
1943 - đồng bạc: 1 cent
This system gradually became the major method of recruitment into the bureaucracy; by the end of the Tang dynasty, the old aristocracy was destroyed, and its power was taken by the scholar-gentry, who staffed the bureaucracy.
1943 - đồng bạc: 5 cent
This nonhereditary elite would eventually become known to the West as “mandarins,” in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese they employed.
1945 đồng bạc: 5 cent
The civil service system expanded to what many consider its highest point during the Song dynasty (960–1279).
1945 đồng bạc: 10 cent
Public schools were established throughout the country to help the talented but indigent, business contact was barred among officials related by blood or marriage, relatives of the imperial family were not permitted to hold high positions, and promotions were based on a merit system in which a person who nominated another for advancement was deemed totally responsible for that person’s conduct.
1945 đồng bạc: 20 cent
Almost all Song officials in the higher levels of the bureaucracy were recruited by passing the jinshi degree, and the examinations became regularly established affairs.
1946 - đồng bạc: 50 cent
After 1065 they were held every three years, but only for those who first passed qualifying tests on the local level.
1947 - đồng bạc: 1 piastre
Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the civil service system reached its final form, and the succeeding Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) copied the Ming system virtually intact.
Indochina 1 Cent 1938 bronze
During this period no man was allowed to serve in his home district, and officials were rotated in their jobs every three years. The recruitment exam was divided into three stages: the xiucai (“cultivated talent”), or bachelor’s degree, held on the local-prefecture level; the juren (“recommended man”), given at the prefectural capital; and the jinshi, held at Beijing.
Although only the passage of the jinshi made one eligible for high office, passage of the other degrees gave one certain privileges, such as exemption from labour service and corporal punishment, government stipends, and admission to upper-gentry status (juren).
Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent cheating, different districts in the country were given quotas for recruitment into the service to prevent the dominance of any one region, and the testing matter was limited to the Nine Classics of Confucianism.
The examination became so stylized that the set form for an examination paper came to be the famous “eight-legged essay” (bagu wenzhang), which had eight main headings, used not more than 700 characters, and dealt with topics according to a certain set manner. It had no relation to the candidate’s ability to govern and was often criticized for setting a command of style above thought.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-civil-service
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The Cham-Đại Việt War of 1471 was a military expedition launched by Emperor Lê Thánh Tông of Đại Việt, and is widely regarded as the event that marked the downfall of Champa. The Đại Việt forces attacked and sacked the kingdom's largest city-state, Vijaya, and defeated the Cham army. When the conflict was resolved, Champa was forced to cede territory to Annam, and was no longer a threat to Annamese territory.
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The Cham and the Đại Việt have had a long history of conflict. In the course of their wars, peace often paired with economic exhaustion, recovering their economies just to go to war again.[2] When fighting resumed in 1471, the Champa kingdom found itself weakened and isolated. It has experienced numerous civil wars and, at one point, had five different rulers. For its earlier attack on Angkor, the Khmers ignored the Cham's request for assistance when Vietnam invaded.
The Cham also requested Ming China to intervene by helping bring the Vietnamese back in line by force and demarcate the border between Champa and Vietnam. China, however, only verbally rebuked the Vietnamese for its incursion, which the Vietnamese ignored, proceeding with its attack and plan to destroy its rival.
The Vietnamese then carried out its campaign. On November 28, 1470, Le Thanh Tong formally launched his attack as a 100,000-strong Vietnamese naval expedition set out that day, followed by another Vietnamese army consisting of 150,000 men on December 8.
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The Vietnamese army was reorganized to copy the Chinese army, armed with gunpowder weapons. Le Thanh Tong raised a total of 300,000-strong army in the battlefield and, significantly outnumbering the 100,000-strong Cham army. This came at a massive financial cost since it drained the Vietnamese treasury of 1,000 gold liang each day. However, it decisively won the war.
The Cham representatives told the Chinese that "Annam destroyed our country". The Chinese Ming Dynasty records contain the extent of the Vietnamese destruction wrought on Champa. The Vietnamese enslaved several thousand Chams and enacted forced assimilation of Vietnamese culture onto Chams. The number included 50 members of the royal family.[9] The Chams informed China that they continued to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of their land, which had been turned into the 13th province of Vietnam.
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The Champa kingdom was destroyed by the invasion, leaving small rump states which lasted until 1832, when Vietnamese emperor Minh Mang initiated the final conquest of the remnants of Champa. The Vietnamese ceramics trade was severely affected due to impact suffered by the Cham merchants after the invasion.[11] The Chinese scholar 吳樸 Wu Pu recommended that to help stop the Vietnamese, China should help resuscitate the Champa Kingdom.
The Chinese government sent a censor, Ch'en Chun, to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but he discovered Vietnamese soldiers had taken over Champa and were blocking his entry. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to China. Malacca sent envoys to China again in 1481 to inform the Chinese that while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them.
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The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and also that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back due to lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. The Chinese Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked.
Only a small Cham kingdom remained in the south but this did not persist. Around 162,000 Cham remain in Vietnam today.
The victory allowed the Đại Việt a period of stability since it united the north under the Trinh dynasty. It also allowed the kingdom to consolidate its power in its later conflict with the Nguyen family that ruled the south.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War_(1471)
Nhưng
những thế kỷ đầu không thấy nói gì tới vị thánh này cả. Thánh Ambrôsiô,
Hierônimô rất kính các trinh nữ tử đạo, nhưng không nhắc đến tên Ngài.
Ba trăm năm sau cuộc tử đạo giả định này, câu chuyện của thánh nữ xem ra
là một trong những áng văn đẹp nhất làm say mê tín hữu và phổ biến rộng
rãi lạ thường. Câu chuyện tưởng tượng về thánh nữ Cêcilia được chen vào
giữa hai vị tử đạo có thật là Valêriô và Tiburtiô. Truyện đó như sau :
Cêcilia thuộc gia đình quí phái sống tại Roma dưới thời vua Alexander Sêvêrô. Cuộc bách hại thật dữ dằn. Một mình trong gia đình là Kitô hữu, Ngài luôn mang theo cuốn Phúc âm và sống đời cầu nguyện bác ái. Mỗi khi tới hang toại đạo là nơi Đức giáo hoàng Urbanô bí mật cử hành thánh lễ, đoàn người ăn xin đợi chờ Ngài trên đường đi Roma chìa tay xin Ngài phân phát của bố thí. Dưới lớp áo thêu vàng, Cêcilia mặc áo nhậm mà vẫn tỏ ra bình thản dịu dàng.
Trong khi tuổi trẻ ngoại giáo mê say nhạc trần tục, lòng Cêcilia hướng về Chúa và ca tụng một mình Ngài thôi. Đáp lại lòng đạo đức của Ngài, Thiên Chúa cho Ngài được đặc ân được thấy thiên thần hộ thủ hiện diện bên mình.
Cha mẹ Cêcilia gả Ngài cho một nhà quí phái tên là Valêriô yêu Cêcilia nồng nhiệt, ông không biết Ngài theo Kitô giáo, nhưng ông có một tâm hồn ngay thẳng.
Ngày cưới, Cêcilia mặc chiếc áo nhặm duới lớp áo ngoài sang trọng và khẩn cầu Chúa giữ cho mình được trinh nguyên. Giữa những tiếng ca vui nhộn, Cêcilia vẫn theo thói quen cùng với các thiên thần ca hát những khúc thánh thi. Bởi đó mà các người Kitô hữu hay nhận Ngài là bổn mạng của các nhạc sĩ. Chúa Giêsu khấng nghe lời ca trong trắng tự lòng vị hôn thê trẻ dâng lên Ngài. Khi chiều về, Cêcilia nói với Valêriô:
- Thưa Chúa công, em có điều này muốn nói với anh, không bàn tay trần tục nào được động tới em, vì em có một thiên thần bảo vệ. Nếu anh tôn trọng em, Ngài cũng yêu mến anh và ban ân phúc cho anh.
...
Ngạc nhiên và rất cảm kích, Valêriô đã ao ước nhìn thấy thiên thần. Cêcilia mới nói rằng: ông phải chịu phép rửa tội đã, rồi nàng giải thích mầu nhiệm cứu rỗi các linh hồn do đức Kitô cho ông nghe. Ngài đề nghị: - Anh hãy tới đường Appianô. Anh sẽ gặp những người nghèo khổ và lấy danh nghĩa em để xin họ dẫn anh tới gặp cụ già Urbanô đang ẩn náu trong hang toại đạo. Vị giám mục này sẽ dạy dỗ anh hay hơn em, Ngài sẽ chúc bình an cho anh, sẽ mặc cho anh bộ áo trắng tinh. Rồi trở lại đây anh sẽ thấy thiên thần của em.
Valêriô theo lời vị hôn thê của mình, đến đường Appianô và được dẫn tới vị giám mục. Ngài dạy đạo và rửa tội cho ông. Trở về với Cêcilia . Ông gặp nàng đang cầu nguyện, có thiên thần bên cạnh, khuôn mặt thiên thần rực sáng, tay cầm hai triều thiên kết bằng hoa huệ và hoa hồng. Ngài đặt một chiếc trên đầu Cêcilia và một chiếc trên đầu Valêriô và nói:
- "Hãy giữ lòng trong trắng để xứng đáng bảo vệ những triều thiên này, chúng từ vườn của Thiên Chúa, không bao giờ tàn tạ, chẳng hề lạt hương".
Thiên thần còn nói thêm : - "Hỡi Valêriô, bởi vì anh đã biết nghe lời hiền thê của anh, vậy anh xin điều gì anh muốn". Valêriô có người em ông yêu thương lắm tên là Tiburtiô, ông xin : - "Con muốn em con cũng biết đạo thật như con"
Thiên thần trả lời : - Điều anh xin rất đẹp lòng Chúa. Vậy hãy biết rằng: Tiburtiô và anh sẽ lên trời với ngành vạn tuế tử đạo".
Ngay lúc ấy Tiburtiô xuất hiện. Ông thấy mùi hoa huệ và hoa hồng và muốn biết từ đâu mà có hương thơm như vậy giữa mùa này, thứ hương thơm như làm con người ông trẻ lại. Cêcilia đã nói cho ông hiểu sự hư không của các ngẫu thần, đã tỏ cho ông thấy sự rực rỡ của đức tin vào Chúa Giêsu Kitô. Tiburtiô muốn được sự chỉ dạy, và đến lượt ông, cũng đã lãnh nhận bí tích rửa tội do đức giáo hoàng Urbanô.
Cêcilia, Valêriô và Tiburtiô cùng nhau sống đời thánh thiện. Họ phân phát của bố thí cho các Kitô hữu bị bắt bớ, bí mật cầu nguyện với những người bị kết án và khuyến khích họ can đảm chịu cực hình. Đêm về hai anh em lo chôn cất xác các vị tử đạo.
Chẳng bao lâu họ bị phát giác. Tổng trấn Almachiô ngac nhiên hỏi: - Các người quan tâm tới các tử tội bị ta kết án hay sao ?
Cêcilia trả lời : - Thật đẹp lòng Chúa biết bao, nếu chúng tôi xứng đáng được làm nô lệ cho những người mà Ngài kết án là tử tội.
Quan tổng trấn nhún vai cho rằng: người đàn bà này mất trí. Ông tách riêng Valêriô và Tiburtiô và cũng hỏi như vậy. Nhưng các Ngài đã khinh thường danh vọng với sang giàu mà Almachiô rất coi trọng. Ông liền kết án trảm quyết các Ngài. Tác giả kể lại cuộc tử nạn các Ngài đã nói: - Người ta thấy các Ngài chạy xô tới cái chết như tới dự một đại lễ.
Cêcilia thu lượm và chôn cất xác các Ngài. Nàng vẫn tiếp tục bao bọc cho các Kitô hữu bị bách hại. Almachiô liền tống giam các Ngài. Bị vấn danh Ngài nói : - Tôi tên là Cêcilia, nhưng Kitô hữu là tên đẹp hơn nhiều của tôi.
Quan tổng trấn bắt nộp tài sản của Valêriô và Tiburtiô. Cêcilia trả lời để tất cả đã được phân phát cho người nghèo rồi. Tức giận Almachiô truyền cho Cêcilia phải dâng hương tế thần ngay nếu không sẽ phải chết. Cêcilia cười trả lời : - Chư thần của ông chỉ là đá, đồng chì, và Ngài tuyên xưng đức tin vào Chúa Kitô mà thôi. Các binh sĩ xúc động nghĩ rằng Ngài sắp phải chết nên nài nỉ: - Cô sang trọng và trẻ đẹp, hai mươi tuổi đầu hãy dâng hương tế thần đi, đừng để chết uổng.
Nhưng Cêcilia trả lời họ rằng: - Các ông không biết rằng chết vào tuổi tôi, không phải là đánh mất tuổi trẻ, nhưng là đổi chác vì Thiên Chúa sẽ trả lại gấp trăm cái người ta dâng cho Ngài sao ? Nếu người ta đưa quí kim để đổi lấy vật tầm thường, các ông có ngập ngừng không ?
Nghe Ngài các binh sĩ hoán cải. Almachiô mất bình tĩnh truyền giam Ngài vào phòng tắm. Căn phòng đầy hơi nóng. Cêcilia không hề thấy khó chịu. Almachiô truyền chém đầu Ngài lý hình ba lần dùng gươm mà chỉ gây nên được một vết thương ghê rợn. Thánh nữ đã cầu xin để được gặp Đức Giáo hoàng Urbanô đến lo linh hồn mình. Ngài còn sống được 3 ngày, được gặp Đức Urbanô, rồi lãnh triều thiên thiên thần đã hứa.
...
Các Kitô hữu chôn táng Ngài và tôn trọng thái độ lúc Ngài tắt hơi, đầu không cúi gục như bông hao không tàn.
Hơn một nghìn năm sau, người ta thấy trong hang toại đạo một thi thể được coi như là của Cêcilia, huyền thoại kể lại và nghệ sĩ trẻ Maderna tạc tượng đã nghĩ đây là tuyệt phẩm của ơn thánh.
Vào thế kỷ thứ V, một nhà quí phái trùng tên đã dâng nhiều dinh thự làm nhà thờ đặt tên là Cêcilia danh hiệu bà đã được mang.
Cêcilia thuộc gia đình quí phái sống tại Roma dưới thời vua Alexander Sêvêrô. Cuộc bách hại thật dữ dằn. Một mình trong gia đình là Kitô hữu, Ngài luôn mang theo cuốn Phúc âm và sống đời cầu nguyện bác ái. Mỗi khi tới hang toại đạo là nơi Đức giáo hoàng Urbanô bí mật cử hành thánh lễ, đoàn người ăn xin đợi chờ Ngài trên đường đi Roma chìa tay xin Ngài phân phát của bố thí. Dưới lớp áo thêu vàng, Cêcilia mặc áo nhậm mà vẫn tỏ ra bình thản dịu dàng.
Trong khi tuổi trẻ ngoại giáo mê say nhạc trần tục, lòng Cêcilia hướng về Chúa và ca tụng một mình Ngài thôi. Đáp lại lòng đạo đức của Ngài, Thiên Chúa cho Ngài được đặc ân được thấy thiên thần hộ thủ hiện diện bên mình.
Cha mẹ Cêcilia gả Ngài cho một nhà quí phái tên là Valêriô yêu Cêcilia nồng nhiệt, ông không biết Ngài theo Kitô giáo, nhưng ông có một tâm hồn ngay thẳng.
Ngày cưới, Cêcilia mặc chiếc áo nhặm duới lớp áo ngoài sang trọng và khẩn cầu Chúa giữ cho mình được trinh nguyên. Giữa những tiếng ca vui nhộn, Cêcilia vẫn theo thói quen cùng với các thiên thần ca hát những khúc thánh thi. Bởi đó mà các người Kitô hữu hay nhận Ngài là bổn mạng của các nhạc sĩ. Chúa Giêsu khấng nghe lời ca trong trắng tự lòng vị hôn thê trẻ dâng lên Ngài. Khi chiều về, Cêcilia nói với Valêriô:
- Thưa Chúa công, em có điều này muốn nói với anh, không bàn tay trần tục nào được động tới em, vì em có một thiên thần bảo vệ. Nếu anh tôn trọng em, Ngài cũng yêu mến anh và ban ân phúc cho anh.
...
Ngạc nhiên và rất cảm kích, Valêriô đã ao ước nhìn thấy thiên thần. Cêcilia mới nói rằng: ông phải chịu phép rửa tội đã, rồi nàng giải thích mầu nhiệm cứu rỗi các linh hồn do đức Kitô cho ông nghe. Ngài đề nghị: - Anh hãy tới đường Appianô. Anh sẽ gặp những người nghèo khổ và lấy danh nghĩa em để xin họ dẫn anh tới gặp cụ già Urbanô đang ẩn náu trong hang toại đạo. Vị giám mục này sẽ dạy dỗ anh hay hơn em, Ngài sẽ chúc bình an cho anh, sẽ mặc cho anh bộ áo trắng tinh. Rồi trở lại đây anh sẽ thấy thiên thần của em.
Valêriô theo lời vị hôn thê của mình, đến đường Appianô và được dẫn tới vị giám mục. Ngài dạy đạo và rửa tội cho ông. Trở về với Cêcilia . Ông gặp nàng đang cầu nguyện, có thiên thần bên cạnh, khuôn mặt thiên thần rực sáng, tay cầm hai triều thiên kết bằng hoa huệ và hoa hồng. Ngài đặt một chiếc trên đầu Cêcilia và một chiếc trên đầu Valêriô và nói:
- "Hãy giữ lòng trong trắng để xứng đáng bảo vệ những triều thiên này, chúng từ vườn của Thiên Chúa, không bao giờ tàn tạ, chẳng hề lạt hương".
Thiên thần còn nói thêm : - "Hỡi Valêriô, bởi vì anh đã biết nghe lời hiền thê của anh, vậy anh xin điều gì anh muốn". Valêriô có người em ông yêu thương lắm tên là Tiburtiô, ông xin : - "Con muốn em con cũng biết đạo thật như con"
Thiên thần trả lời : - Điều anh xin rất đẹp lòng Chúa. Vậy hãy biết rằng: Tiburtiô và anh sẽ lên trời với ngành vạn tuế tử đạo".
Ngay lúc ấy Tiburtiô xuất hiện. Ông thấy mùi hoa huệ và hoa hồng và muốn biết từ đâu mà có hương thơm như vậy giữa mùa này, thứ hương thơm như làm con người ông trẻ lại. Cêcilia đã nói cho ông hiểu sự hư không của các ngẫu thần, đã tỏ cho ông thấy sự rực rỡ của đức tin vào Chúa Giêsu Kitô. Tiburtiô muốn được sự chỉ dạy, và đến lượt ông, cũng đã lãnh nhận bí tích rửa tội do đức giáo hoàng Urbanô.
Cêcilia, Valêriô và Tiburtiô cùng nhau sống đời thánh thiện. Họ phân phát của bố thí cho các Kitô hữu bị bắt bớ, bí mật cầu nguyện với những người bị kết án và khuyến khích họ can đảm chịu cực hình. Đêm về hai anh em lo chôn cất xác các vị tử đạo.
Chẳng bao lâu họ bị phát giác. Tổng trấn Almachiô ngac nhiên hỏi: - Các người quan tâm tới các tử tội bị ta kết án hay sao ?
Cêcilia trả lời : - Thật đẹp lòng Chúa biết bao, nếu chúng tôi xứng đáng được làm nô lệ cho những người mà Ngài kết án là tử tội.
Quan tổng trấn nhún vai cho rằng: người đàn bà này mất trí. Ông tách riêng Valêriô và Tiburtiô và cũng hỏi như vậy. Nhưng các Ngài đã khinh thường danh vọng với sang giàu mà Almachiô rất coi trọng. Ông liền kết án trảm quyết các Ngài. Tác giả kể lại cuộc tử nạn các Ngài đã nói: - Người ta thấy các Ngài chạy xô tới cái chết như tới dự một đại lễ.
Cêcilia thu lượm và chôn cất xác các Ngài. Nàng vẫn tiếp tục bao bọc cho các Kitô hữu bị bách hại. Almachiô liền tống giam các Ngài. Bị vấn danh Ngài nói : - Tôi tên là Cêcilia, nhưng Kitô hữu là tên đẹp hơn nhiều của tôi.
Quan tổng trấn bắt nộp tài sản của Valêriô và Tiburtiô. Cêcilia trả lời để tất cả đã được phân phát cho người nghèo rồi. Tức giận Almachiô truyền cho Cêcilia phải dâng hương tế thần ngay nếu không sẽ phải chết. Cêcilia cười trả lời : - Chư thần của ông chỉ là đá, đồng chì, và Ngài tuyên xưng đức tin vào Chúa Kitô mà thôi. Các binh sĩ xúc động nghĩ rằng Ngài sắp phải chết nên nài nỉ: - Cô sang trọng và trẻ đẹp, hai mươi tuổi đầu hãy dâng hương tế thần đi, đừng để chết uổng.
Nhưng Cêcilia trả lời họ rằng: - Các ông không biết rằng chết vào tuổi tôi, không phải là đánh mất tuổi trẻ, nhưng là đổi chác vì Thiên Chúa sẽ trả lại gấp trăm cái người ta dâng cho Ngài sao ? Nếu người ta đưa quí kim để đổi lấy vật tầm thường, các ông có ngập ngừng không ?
Nghe Ngài các binh sĩ hoán cải. Almachiô mất bình tĩnh truyền giam Ngài vào phòng tắm. Căn phòng đầy hơi nóng. Cêcilia không hề thấy khó chịu. Almachiô truyền chém đầu Ngài lý hình ba lần dùng gươm mà chỉ gây nên được một vết thương ghê rợn. Thánh nữ đã cầu xin để được gặp Đức Giáo hoàng Urbanô đến lo linh hồn mình. Ngài còn sống được 3 ngày, được gặp Đức Urbanô, rồi lãnh triều thiên thiên thần đã hứa.
...
Các Kitô hữu chôn táng Ngài và tôn trọng thái độ lúc Ngài tắt hơi, đầu không cúi gục như bông hao không tàn.
Hơn một nghìn năm sau, người ta thấy trong hang toại đạo một thi thể được coi như là của Cêcilia, huyền thoại kể lại và nghệ sĩ trẻ Maderna tạc tượng đã nghĩ đây là tuyệt phẩm của ơn thánh.
Vào thế kỷ thứ V, một nhà quí phái trùng tên đã dâng nhiều dinh thự làm nhà thờ đặt tên là Cêcilia danh hiệu bà đã được mang.
https://giaophanlangson.org/news/cac-thanh-theo-lich-phung-vu/ngay-22-11-thanh-cecilia-dong-trinh-tu-dao-1731.html
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Jaya Bahasa: Câu chuyện về Ja Mlen – Chế Linh ít được biết đếnh.
Vào những thập niên 60, 70 của thế kỉ XX trong làng giải trí văn nghệ miền Nam xuất hiện một nam ca sĩ với chất giọng hát liêu trai gốc người Chàm.
Tiếng hát ai oán cùng những tình khúc nói về lứa đôi tan vỡ và những cách trở của quê hương như chính thực trạng của đất nước đang có chiến tranh.
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Vì vậy, nó đã lôi cuốn làm mê muội người nghe một cách kì lạ.
Người ca sĩ đó mang tên Chăm là Ja Mlen, ở palei Hamu Tanran, tỉnh Ninh Thuận.
Sau này, nổi tiếng với nghệ danh Chế Linh.
Thời niên thiếu, như bao trẻ em Chăm khác, Chế Linh phải lao động sớm, anh gánh vác kinh tế gia đình bằng việc đi chăn trâu thuê.
Cùng với đám bạn mục đồng, với tiếng sáo trúc và lời ca trên lưng trâu vào mỗi buổi trưa hè vô tư, dần dần hình thành nên một chất giọng khỏe khoắn, mặn mà, truyền cảm, bùi và mùi mặn rất đặc trưng.
Và mỗi khi tiếng hát đó được ngân lên ai cũng dễ dàng nhận ra đó là của ca sĩ Chế Linh.
Tiếng hát Chế Linh sẽ khó vượt ra khỏi không gian palei Chăm, nếu không có biến cố xảy ra với cuộc đời anh. Khi Chế Linh còn học Trung học, chính phủ Ngô Đình Diệm vì muốn xóa bỏ ý thức tộc người thiểu số để đồng hóa nhanh các sắc dân khác thành người Việt.
Tổng thống Ngô Đình Diệm đã ban hành Quyết định cấm dạy thổ ngữ trong phạm vi toàn quốc.
Trong đó có chữ Chăm – Akhar Thrah, vốn được tự do truyền bá suốt thời kì Pháp thuộc cũng không nằm ngoại lệ.
Bức xúc trước sự phân biệt văn hóa cùng với những mâu thuẫn sắc tộc, Chế Linh quyết chí giải thoát bằng những chuyến đi xa nhà với mong muốn tìm lại sự hài hòa, gần gũi và đoàn kết giữa hai dân tộc Chăm-Việt.
Nhưng lúc bấy giờ, anh vẫn chưa có một kế hoạch, một sự chuẩn bị nào cho cuộc “trốn chạy” của tuổi thiếu niên.
May mắn thay! Chế Linh quen biết bà Tư Ửng là người Hoa ở chợ Phú Quý chuyên đi bán vải dạo ở các palei Chăm.
Mỗi chuyến đi buôn như thế, bà luôn cần người mang, vác vải dùm. Bà Tư Ửng còn có người thân thuộc làm nghề buôn bán ở Chợ Lớn (Saigon).
Thế là, với sự nông nổi của tuổi thiếu niên, Ja Mlen đã theo bà Tư Ửng vào đô thành Saigon để tìm kiếm nguồn mưu sinh thỏa mãn chí phiêu lưu.
Ở chốn đô thành, Chế Linh không có tài sản gì và cũng chẳng có nghề nghiệp, anh được giới thiệu đến làm nghề gánh nước thuê trong Chợ Lớn. Trong thời gian này, anh hoàn toàn không có thông tin gì từ gia đình ở quê nhà. Và ngược lại, ở quê nhà cũng không ai biết lí do tại sao anh nao hoang – đi bụi.
Như một sự sắp đặt của ý trời, trong lần gánh nước, Chế Linh tình cờ gặp được người anh họ cùng quê là ông Lưu Quý Tân. Thấy người em vất vả ở nơi đất khách quê người, ông Lưu Quý Tân bàn với Chế Linh về kế hoạch đến chung sống với gia đình.
Theo nguyện vọng của người anh họ, muốn Chế Linh quay trở lại trường lớp. Còn những lúc rảnh rỗi thì chăm sóc em, đi chợ và dọn dẹp nhà cửa. Tuy nhiên, đi học không bao lâu, Chế Linh nhận ra mình không có duyên với chuyện đèn sách. Nên, xin đi học nhạc theo sở thích. Và năng khiếu về âm nhạc của Chế Linh được nuôi dưỡng và phát triển đầu tiên khi gặp nhạc sĩ Đàng Năng Quạ (Chế Vũ Phương) khi ông đang học tại trường Quốc gia Sư phạm Saigon.
Sau này, Chế Linh có cơ hội được gặp gỡ với ca sĩ Duy Khánh. Từ đó, Chế Linh có nhiều bước ngoặt lớn trong cuộc đời và sinh hoạt văn nghệ trong làng giải trí âm nhạc ở miền Nam. Chỉ trong một thời gian ngắn, tiếng hát Chế Linh có nhiều tiến bộ, từng bước chinh phục được triệu khán thính giả nghe nhạc và được mệnh danh là tứ trụ âm nhạc ở đất Saigon bao gồm: Duy Khánh, Trần Thiện Thanh (Nhật Trường), Hùng Cường và Chế Linh.
Sự chín mùi trong nghiệp cầm ca của Chế Linh được đánh dấu bằng giải thưởng Kim Khánh với chiếc huy chương vàng cho hạng nam ca (năm 1972). Khi đã có chỗ đứng trong lòng khán giả, Chế Linh liên tục phát hành rất nhiều CD và tham gia nhiều chương trình Đại Nhạc hội toàn miền Nam. Thể loại nhạc anh chọn để thể hiện và giọng hát Chế Linh được nhiều tầng lớp người yêu mến.
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Đặc biệt, sự kết hợp ngẫu nhiên giữa cặp đôi Thanh Tuyền- Chế Linh, một giọng nữ cao và giọng nam trầm, tạo thành đôi song ca ăn ý đã thật sự làm chấn động một hiện tượng âm nhạc mới. Tiếng hát Chế Linh được chào đón khắp đô thành, ngoài chiến trường đến tận nơi miệt vườn. Trong những chuyến lưu diễn ở miền Trung, Chế Linh cùng đồng nghiệp đã tổ chức nhiều show diễn miễn phí cho học sinh Trường Trung học Pô Klong.
Tuy là người rất nổi tiếng cả trong nước lẫn ở hải ngoại, nhưng Chế Linh ở ngoài đời có lối sống khá bình dân, chan hòa với mọi người. Chế Linh còn có một đức tính khác mà ít người biết đến. Đó là tính dễ bị mắc cỡ. Khi còn chăm sóc, đưa đón bé Đào đi học (đang học lớp 1, trường tiểu học Đinh Tiên Hoàng)-con gái rượu của ông Lưu Quý Tân.
Vào dịp Trung Thu, bé dặn Chế Linh mua cho lồng đèn có hình ngôi sao. Không biết có phải bị mắc cỡ vì lớn tuổi rồi mà đi mua lồng đèn chăng, nên Chế Linh chỉ mua lồng đèn giấy tròn và xếp gọn gàng mang về. Thấy chẳng giống lồng đèn Trung Thu ưa thích, bé khóc nức nở. Chế Linh dỗ hoài bé cũng không nín, thấy vậy, người hàng xóm tặng lồng đèn khác cho Chế Linh đền cho bé.
Gần 30 năm sinh hoạt âm nhạc ở nước ngoài, vào năm 2007, Chế Linh quay trở về Việt Nam lần đầu tiên để thăm lại palei Chăm. Các bô lão, dân làng chào đón Ja Mlen như chính người thân ruột thịt của mình ở xa mới về. Một năm sau đó, Chế Linh cùng bà con Chăm đón rước Y Trang Po Inư Nưgar vào mùa lễ hội Katê.
Nhân dịp này, Chế Linh đã thể hiện những ca khúc dân ca Chăm phục vụ cho đồng bào mình thưởng thức thật du dương thật sâu lắng khó tả. Được khán giả vỗ tay khen ngợi không dứt, đến nỗi Chế Linh không cầm được cảm xúc trên sân khấu quê nhà. Ja Mlen-Chế Linh không chỉ là đứa con Chăm yêu quý của riêng dân tộc Chăm mà còn là thần tượng của triệu khán thính giả người Việt trên toàn cầu./.
https://gilaipraung.com/2011/10/jaya-bahasa-cau-chuy%E1%BB%87n-v%E1%BB%81-ja-mlen-ch%E1%BA%BF-linh-it-d%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c-bi%E1%BA%BFt-d%E1%BA%BFn/
Lý Thường Kiệt
Lý Thường Kiệt (李常傑; 1019–1105) was a Vietnamese eunuch, general, and admiral during the Lý Dynasty in Vietnam.[1] He was a leading general for Vietnam during the Lý-Song wars.
Lý Thường Kiệt was born into a Ngô family in Thăng Long (now Hanoi), the capital of Đại Việt (ancient Vietnam). His real name was Ngô Tuấn. His father was a low-ranking military officer. In 1036, he served the Emperor as a cavalry captain and later the commander of the imperial guard. Because of his demonstrated bravery, intelligence and loyalty, he was granted a royal name, Lý Thường Kiệt, and given an important position in the Court.
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In 1075, Chancellor Wang Anshi of China under the Song Dynasty told Emperor Shenzong that Đại Việt was being weakened by Champa and was an easy pick for a Chinese take-over. With less than ten thousand soldiers remaining, so argued Wang, Đại Việt would be in a vulnerable position, and it would be a great opportunity for China to annex its age-old enemy.
In response, Shenzong mobilized troops and passed decrees which forbade all of China's provinces to trade with Đại Việt, in effect imposing an embargo on the country in the same way that the United States would do nine centuries later. Upon hearing this, the Lý ruler sent Lý Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tôn Đản with more than 100,000 troops to China to carry out a pre-emptive attack against the Song Dynasty. In the ensuing 40-day battle near modern-day Nanning, Đại Việt troops were victorious, capturing the generals of three Song armies.
In 1076, the Song formed an alliance with the other enemies of Dai Viet, Champa and the Khmer Empire and all three sent troops to invade Đại Việt. Đại Việt Emperor Lý Nhân Tông again sent General Lý Thường Kiệt to lead his forces. Being one of the many great military strategists of Vietnam, Lý Thường Kiệt placed spikes under the Như Nguyệt riverbed before tricking Song troops into the death trap, killing more than 1,000 Chinese soldiers and sailors and forcing the rest of Chinese forces to retreat.
Those two significant Vietnamese victories over the Song ceased the latter's attempts to extend south. Afterwards, Lý Thường Kiệt also led a Vietnamese army south to invade Champa twice, with both invasions being successful. He died in 1105 at the age of 86. He may have been the author of Chinese poem, Nam Quốc Sơn Hà. However there is still controversy surrounding exact authorship.
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The poem was written to motivate troops to fight against the Song dynasty. According to Trần Trọng Kim, Ly was afraid that his soldiers would lose morale so he wrote this poem and said it was done by the Gods to restore their fighting spirit.
In US President Barack Obama's visit to Vietnam, he referred to the poem as Vietnam's "declaration of independence" saying that big countries should not bully smaller countries, which is somewhat ironic given the US-waged Vietnam War. Nonetheless, to this day the poem is still well-known in Vietnam, and Ly is considered a national hero (by Vietnam, not China), with some Vietnamese still delivering tribute to and worshipping him as a deity at his shrine in Hanoi.
General Ly Thuong Kiet was also the author of the Phạt Tống lộ bố văn (chữ Hán : 伐宋露布文, An Account of the Campaign to Punish the Song), another poem against the Song Dynasty.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD_Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_Ki%E1%BB%87t
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Lý Thường Kiệt of the Lý Dynasty is one of the greatest generals in Vietnamese history, helping the country defeat the Chinese Song Dynasty in the 11th century. He was born in the city of Thang Long (modern day Hanoi) in 1019 and died in 1105 at the age of 86. Lý served as the captain of a cavalry before rising through the ranks of the Vietnamese military.
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In order for him to lead the Imperial Guards, he had to be castrated and become a eunuch. As a military leader Lý Thường Kiệt proves to be more than capable, not only was he victorious against the Chinese, but against the Cham and Cambodian armies as well. Besides his military triumphs, Lý Thường Kiệt is also remembered for writing the famous poem Nam Quốc Sơn Hà, the very first Declaration of Independence of Vietnam. To this day, Lý Thường Kiệt is still revered as one of Vietnam’s greatest heroes.
The Lý–Song War was a significant war fought between the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt and the Song dynasty of China between 1075 and 1077. The war began in 1075 when the Lý emperor ordered a preemptive invasion of the Song dynasty using more than 100,000 soldiers, where Đại Việt's forces defeated the Song army and razed the city of Yongzhou (modern day Nanning) to the ground after a forty-two day siege.
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In response, in 1076 the Song led an army of over 300,000 to invade Đại Việt and by 1077 nearly reached Thăng Long, the capital of Đại Việt, before being halted by general Lý Thường Kiệt at the Nhu Nguyệt River in modern Bắc Ninh Province. After a long battle at the river with high casualties on both sides, Lý Thường Kiệt offered peace to the Song, and the Song commander Guo Kui agreed to withdraw his troops, ending the war.
Tension and border hostilities were already high in the years prior to the war; in the 1050s, Nùng Trí Cao, the head of the local Nùng people in Quảng Nguyên (now Cao Bằng Province) attempted to fight for independence and establish a frontier state for his people, but his rebellion was crushed by Song general Di Qing (1008–1061).[8] While the Lý court did not intervene in the matter, the threat of Song expansion was always on the horizon due to increasing numbers of Han Chinese settlers, such as the soldiers from Di Qing's division and those north of the Yangzi River settled in areas that the Lý relied upon for the extraction of natural resources.
In 1075, Wang Anshi, the chancellor of the Song dynasty, told Emperor Shenzong (r. 1067–1085) that Đại Việt was being destroyed by Champa, with less than ten thousand soldiers surviving, so hence it would be a good occasion to annex Đại Việt.
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The Song emperor then mobilized his troops and passed a decree to forbid all the provinces of Song to trade with Đại Việt; this prompted the Lý court under Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127) to authorize a preemptive invasion of Guangxi in the Song dynasty. Lý Nhân Tông then sent general Lý Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tông Đán, a kinsman of the Nùng rebel Nùng Trí Cao, to lead more than a hundred thousand soldiers to invade the Chinese province of Guangxi.
In the autumn of 1075, Nùng Tông Đán advanced into Song territory in Guangxi while a naval fleet commanded by Lý Thường Kiệt captured Qinzhou and Lianzhou prefectures.[12] Lý Thường Kiệt calmed the apprehensions of the local Chinese populace, claiming that he was simply apprehending a rebel who took refuge in China and that the local Song authorities had refused to cooperate in detaining him.
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In the early spring of 1076, Thường Kiệt and Nùng Tông Đán defeated the Song militia of Yongzhou,[13] and during a battle at Kunlun Pass, their forces beheaded the Governor-General of Guangnan West Circuit, Zhang Shoujie (d. 1076).[13] Afterwards, the Lý forces then marched towards the city of Yongzhou, where they were temporarily held up by a fierce resistance led by the Yongzhou governor Su Jian, who with three thousand soldiers prevented the city from falling for forty-two days.
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After the forty-two-day siege, on March 1, 1076, Yongzhou was finally breached and then razed to the ground, as Lý forces massacred 58,000 people within the city.[15] Prior to the massacre, after the city was lost, governor Su Jian and thirty-six members of his family in the city committed suicide, with Su Jian stating "I won't die at the hands of those thieves." Several sources estimate that the total number of people killed by Lý troops during this campaign totaled 100,000.
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When Song forces attempted to challenge Lý's forces, the latter retreated, with their spoils of war and thousands of prisoners. Lý Thường Kiệt had fought a war with the Chams in 1069, and in 1076, the Song called upon their vassal states the Khmer Empire and Champa to go to war again against the Lý. At the same time, the Song commander Guo Kui (1022–1088) led the combined Song force of approximately 300,000 men against Lý,[3] who were at the time simultaneously defending against incursions from the Khmer Empire and Champa.[13] The Song quickly regained Quảng Nguyên prefecture and in the process captured the resistance leader Lưu Ký, the chieftain of Quảng Nguyên that had attacked Yongzhou in 1075.
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By 1077, the Song had destroyed two other Vietnamese armies and marched towards their capital at Thăng Long (modern Hanoi). Song forces were halted at the Nhu Nguyệt River (in modern Bắc Ninh Province), where Lý Thường Kiệt had built a defense system by placing spikes under the Như Nguyệt riverbed before tricking Song troops into the death trap, killing more than 1,000 Chinese soldiers and sailors.
In avoiding this strong defense system, the commander of the Song army, Guo Kui decided to change the army's direction towards the nearby region of Phú Lương, where they then defeated Lý Thường Kiệt's forces in a major battle.
As the Song forces took the offensive, while the Lý Dynasty had to strenuously hold on to their costly defensive front, Lý Thường Kiệt tried to boost the morale of his soldiers by citing a poem before his army named "Nam quốc sơn hà". However, Song forces eventually broke through his defense line and their cavalry advanced to within several kilometers of the capital city.
The Vietnamese counterattacked and pushed Song forces back across the river while their coastal defenses distracted the Song navy. Lý Thường Kiệt also launched an offensive, but lost two Lý princes in the fighting at Kháo Túc River.[18] According to Chinese sources, "tropical climate and rampant disease" severely weakened Song's military forces while the Lý court feared the result of a prolonged war so close to the capital.
As a result of mounting casualties on both sides, Thường Kiệt made peace overtures to the Song; the Song commander Guo Kui agreed to withdraw his troops since they had lost 400,000 men,[6] but kept five disputed regions of Quảng Nguyên (renamed Shun'anzhou or Thuận Châu), Tư Lang Châu, Môn Châu, Tô Mậu Châu, and Quảng Lăng, while Đại Việt held control of the Yong, Qin and Lian prefectures.
These areas now comprise most of modern Vietnam's Cao Bằng Province and Lạng Sơn Province.[18] In 1082, after a long period of mutual isolation, Emperor Lý Nhân Tông of Đại Việt returned Yong, Qin, and Lian prefectures back to Song authorities, along with their prisoners of war, and in return Song relinquished its control of four prefectures and the county of Đại Việt, including the Nùng clan's home of Quảng Nguyên.[18] Further negotiations took place from July 6 to August 8, 1084 and were held at Song's Yongping garrison in southern Guangnan, where Lý's Director of Military Personnel Lê Van Thình (fl. 1075–1096) convinced Song to fix the two countries' borders between Quảng Nguyên and Guihua prefectures.
An aftermath of the war that still exists today resulted from an agreement that was negotiated by both sides that fixed the two country's borders; the resulting line of demarcation exists largely unmodified to the present day.
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The Song failed expedition was considered as a severe blow for the dynasty, bolstered its poor military reputation. Angered with the failure, Emperor Shenzong of Song banished Guo Kui for the rest of his life, in which Guo Kui had taken all responsibility. The war highlighted Vietnamese independence and considered as the marking point of Vietnam's militaristic successes.
https://freedomforvietnam.wordpress.com/2010/04/page/2/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD%E2%80%93Song_War
Lưỡng quốc trạng nguyên Mạc Đĩnh Chi. Ảnh: Truyện xưa tích cũ.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi là một trong những kỳ tài trong lịch sử khoa bảng nước ta. Ông được phong là lưỡng quốc trạng nguyên.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi tự là Tiết Phu, hiệu Tích Am, quê ở làng Lũng Động, huyện Chí Linh, tỉnh Hải Dương (nay thuộc thôn Lũng Động, xã Nam Tân, huyện Nam Sách, Hải Dương).
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Theo tài liệu của các nhà sử học Đinh Xuân Lâm và Trương Hữu Quýnh, ông sinh năm 1272 trong gia đình nghèo, mồ côi cha từ nhỏ. Hàng ngày, hai mẹ con phải vào rừng đốn củi bán. Mẹ ông đã hy sinh tất cả để nuôi con ăn học. Bà chỉ mong con thoát cảnh nghèo, có thể thi cử đỗ đạt, giúp ích cho đời. Hiểu được lòng mẹ, Mạc Đĩnh Chi không ngừng gắng sức học tập.
Theo sách Những tấm gương hiếu học xưa và nay, Mạc Đĩnh Chi đọc sách gần như mọi lúc, mọi nơi, kể cả lúc kiếm củi.
Ông thức dậy từ rất sớm, vào rừng lấy củi xong mới về học tiếp. Nhiều lần, Mạc Đĩnh Chi đến lớp muộn, thầy giáo hiểu được hoàn cảnh của học trò nên không trách phạt. Nhiều hôm, thầy còn bảo Mạc Đĩnh Chi ở lại làm thêm việc, cốt để ông được ăn bữa no.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi mượn sách của thầy và bạn để học. Không có tiền mua nến, ông đốt củi, lá cây để đọc sách.
Trong kỳ thi năm Giáp Thìn (1304), Mạc Đĩnh Chi thi đỗ hội nguyên, sau đó thi Đình đỗ trạng nguyên khi mới chỉ 24 tuổi. Ông ra làm quan, trải qua ba triều vua, gồm Trần Anh Tông, Trần Minh Tông và Trần Hiến Tông.
Ông được vua Trần tin dùng, thăng đến chức Đại liêu ban tả Bộc xạ (tể tướng). Ông hai lần được cử sang phương Bắc vào các năm 1308 và 1322.
Ngay trong chuyến đi đầu tiên, ông đã chứng minh tài năng, cốt cách của người Việt, buộc vua Nguyên phải phong mình làm trạng nguyên Bắc triều (lưỡng quốc trạng nguyên).
Bên cạnh đức hiếu học, nét đáng quý ở Mạc Đĩnh Chi là ông luôn giữ được bản tính thật thà, cương trực, thẳng thắn, hết lòng vì nước, vì dân.
Theo sách Kể chuyện trạng Việt Nam của GS Vũ Ngọc Khánh, dù nghe tiếng ông liêm khiết đã lâu, vua Trần Minh Tông vẫn muốn thử thách. Nhà vua sai thị vệ bỏ trước cửa nhà Mạc Đĩnh Chi 10 quan tiền. Sáng hôm sau tỉnh dậy, thấy tiền để trước cửa, ông lập tức vào triều tâu lên vua.
- Tâu bệ hạ, sáng sớm nay, thần bắt được 10 quan tiền ở trước cửa nhà, hỏi khắp cả nhà không ai nhận, nay thần xin trao lại để bệ hạ trả cho người đã mất!
Vua Trần Minh Tông mỉm cười và nói:
- Tiền ấy không ai nhận, cho khanh giữ lấy mà dùng.
- Thưa bệ hạ, tiền này không ít, người mất của chắc xót xa lắm nên tìm người trả lại thì hơn.
- Khanh yên tâm, cứ giữ lấy mà dùng, tiền ấy để thưởng cho lòng chính trực, liêm khiết của khanh đấy.
Bấy giờ, Mạc Đĩnh Chi mới vỡ lẽ là nhà vua thử lòng ông. Nhận tiền xong, ông chào tạ ơn nhà vua rồi ra về.
Mạc Đĩnh Chi mất năm 1346, thọ 74 tuổi. Điện thờ và phần mộ ông đặt tại quê nhà. Ngày nay, nhiều tỉnh thành ở nước ta có những con đường và ngôi trường mang tên ông.
http://m.danviet.vn/dong-tay-kim-co/mac-dinh-chi-tu-cau-be-ban-cui-thanh-luong-quoc-trang-nguyen-779544.html
Turtle Steles with the names of those successful at the royal exams
The Temple of Literature (Vietnamese: Văn Miếu, Hán-Nôm: 文廟[1]) is a Temple of Confucius in Hanoi, northern Vietnam. The temple hosts the Imperial Academy (Quốc Tử Giám, 國子監), Vietnam's first national university. The temple was built in 1070 at the time of Emperor Lý Thánh Tông. It is one of several temples in Vietnam which is dedicated to Confucius, sages and scholars. The temple is located to the south of the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long.
The various pavilions, halls, statues and stelae of doctors are places where offering ceremonies, study sessions and the strict exams of the Đại Việt took place. The temple is featured on the back of the 100,000 Vietnamese đồng banknote. Just before the Vietnamese New Year celebration Tết, calligraphists will assemble outside the temple and write wishes in Hán characters. The art works are given away as gifts or are used as home decorations for special occasions. The temple was built in 1070 and was reconstructed during the Trần dynasty (1225–1400) and in the subsequent dynasties. For nearly two centuries, despite wars and disasters, the temple has preserved ancient architectural styles of many dynasties as well as precious relics. Major restorations have taken place in 1920, 1954 and 2000.
"In the autumn of the year Canh Tuat, the second year of Than Vu (1070), in the 8th lunar month, during the reign of King Lý Thánh Tông, the Văn Miếu was built. The statues of Confucius, his four best disciples: Yan Hui (Nhan Uyên), Zengzi (Tăng Sâm), Zisi (Tử Tư), and Mencius (Mạnh Tử), as well as the Duke of Zhou (Chu Công), were carved and 72 other statues of Confucian scholars were painted. Ceremonies were dedicated to them in each of the four seasons. The Crown Princes studied here."
In 1076, Vietnam's first university, the "Quốc Tử Giám" or Imperial Academy, was established within the temple during the reign of Lý Nhân Tông to educate Vietnam's bureaucrats, nobles, royalty, and other members of the elite. The university remained open from 1076 to 1779. In 1802, the Nguyễn dynasty's monarchs founded the Huế capital where they established a new imperial academy. The academy at the Hanoi temple lost its prominence and became a school of the Hoài Đức District.
Under the French protectorate, the Văn Miếu - Quốc Tử Giám was registered as a Monument historique in 1906. During the period of 1945- 1954, the French demolished parts of the temple to make room for the sick and wounded since the hospitals were full during times of war. Campaigns of restoration were pursued in 1920 and 1947 under the responsibility of École française d'Extrême-Orient (French School of the Far East).
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The temple layout is similar to that of the temple at Qufu, Shandong, Confucius' birthplace. It covers an area of over 54000 square metres, including the Văn lake, Giám park and the interior courtyards which are surrounded by a brick wall.[5] In front of the Great Gate are four tall pillars. On either side of the pillars are two stelae commanding horsemen to dismount.
The gate opens onto three pathways which continues through the complex. The centre path was reserved for the monarch and above the center path there is a big bronze bell, The path to the left is for the administrative Mandarins and the path to the right is for military Mandarins. The interior of the site is divided into five courtyards. The first two courtyards are quiet areas with ancient trees and trimmed lawns, where scholars would relax away from the bustle of the outside world.
The bell located above the main gate was used to signify that an important person was coming through and was added to the Văn Miếu in the 19th century. The bell was made out of Bronze and could only be touched by monks. On the bell several patterns can be found including an outline of a phoenix, which represents beauty, and a dragon, which represents power. Both of these symbols are used to represent the Emperor and Queen. A bell can be found in all of the pagodas in Vietnam.
The first courtyard extends from the Great Portico to the Dai Trung (Đại Trung), which is flanked by two smaller gates: the Dai Tai gate (Đại Tài Môn) and the Thanh Duc gate (Thành Đức Môn).
The second courtyard contains the Khue Van pavilion (Khuê Văn Các, 奎文閣), a unique architectural work built in 1805 and a symbol of present-day Hanoi. The Khue Van pavilion is built on four white-washed stone stilts. At the top is a red-coloured with two circular windows and an elaborate roof. Inside, a bronze bell hangs from the ceiling to be rung on auspicious occasions.
Beside the Khue Van pavilion are the Suc Van gate (Súc Văn Môn) and the Bi Van gate (Bi Văn Môn). These two gates are dedicated to the beauty of literature, both its content and its form. In the first and second courtyards there are topiaries (bushes that are cut into particular shapes) that represent the 12 zodiac animals.
One enters the third courtyard from the Khue Van pavilion. In the third courtyard is the Thien Quang well (Thiên Quang Tỉnh). On either side of the well stand two great halls which house the treasures of the temple.
In 1484, the Emperor Lê Thánh Tông erected 116 steles of carved blue stone turtles with elaborate motifs to honour talent and encourage study.
The Turtle (Quy, 龜) is one of the nation's four holy creatures - the others are the Dragon (Long, 龍), the Unicorn (Ly, 麟) and the Phoenix (Phượng, 鳳).
The turtle is a symbol of longevity and wisdom. The shape and size of the turtle changed with the passage of time.
The doctors' steles are a valuable historical resource for the study of culture, education and sculpture in Vietnam. 82 stelae remain. They depict the names and birth places of 1307 graduates of 82 triennial royal exams. Between 1442 and 1779, eighty-one exams were held by the Lê dynasty and one was held by the Mạc dynasty.
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The ancient Chinese engravings on each stele praise the merits of the monarch and cite the reason for holding royal exams.
They also record the mandarins who were tasked with organising the exams.
It used to be common to rub the stone turtles' heads, but now there is a fence that is meant to prevent people from doing this in order to preserve the turtles.
On each side of the ceremonial fourth courtyard stand two halls. Their original purpose was to house altars to the seventy-two most honoured disciples of Confucius and Chu Văn An (a rector of the Imperial Academy). In the centre of the fourth courtyard is the House of Ceremonies (Đại Bái Đường).
The next building is the Thượng Điện, where Confucius and his four closest disciples Yanhui, Zengshen, Zisi and Mencius are worshipped. The sanctuary also hosts altars to ten honoured philosophers.
A small museum displays ink wells, pens, books and personal artefacts belonging to some of the students that studied at the temple.
In 1076, Emperor Ly Nhan Tong ordered the construction of an imperial academy as a fifth courtyard. Literate mandarins were selected as students. In 1236, the academy was enlarged and named Quốc Tử Viện and later Quốc Học Viện.
In the Lê dynasty it was called Thái Học Viện and was developed further. This development included the Minh Luân house, west and east classrooms, a storehouse for wooden printing blocks and two sets of three 25 room dormitories.
The Khải Thánh shrine was built to honour the parents of Confucius.
In 1946, the courtyard was destroyed by the French in 1946.
In the year 2000, the fifth courtyard was reconstructed on grounds of the original "Imperial Academy".
It honours the talents, the national traditions and the culture and education of Vietnam.
The design of the new fifth courtyard were based on the traditional architecture in harmony with the surrounding sights of the temple.
Several buildings were constructed including the front building, the rear building, the left and right buildings, a bell house and a drum house.
The Thái Học courtyard occupies 1530 m2 of the temple's total area of 6150 m2.
The front building has a number of functions.
Ceremonies in memory of cultural scholars are organised from the front building as are scientific activities and cultural events.
The rear building has two levels.
The ground floor has a statue of Chu Văn An (a rector of the academy) and shows exhibits of the temple and the academy with a display on Confucian education in Vietnam.
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The upper floor is dedicated to the three monarchs who contributed most to the foundation of the temple and the academy: Lý Thánh Tông (1023–1072), who founded the temple in 1070, Lý Nhân Tông (1066–1127), who founded the Imperial Academy, and Lê Thánh Tông (1442–1497), who ordered the erection of the turtle stone stelae of doctor laureates in 1484.
On either side of the rear building are square buildings which hold a drum and a bronze bell.
The drum is 2.01 metres wide, 2.65 metres high, has a volume of 10 m3 and weighs 700 kilogram. The bell was cast in 2000. It has a height of 2.1 metres and it is 0.99 metres wide.
The organization of instruction and learning at the Imperial Academy began in 1076 under the Lý dynasty and was further developed in the 15th century under the Le dynasty.
The academy was headed by a rector (Tế tửu) and a vice-rector (Tư nghiệp). The professors of the academy held different titles: Giáo thụ, Trực giảng, Trợ giáo and Bác sĩ.
Many students lived and studied at the Temple. Most students (Giám sinh) had passed the regional exam (Hương Examination - Thi Hương) before enrolling at the academy. During the course of study at the academy, the students focused on discussion of literature and wrote poetry as well. The students learned Chinese, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese history.
They had textbooks printed on paper which were in both Chinese and Vietnamese. They read The Four Books (Tứ thư, 四書): "The Great Study" (Đại Học, 大學), "The Golden Means" (Trung Dung, 中庸), "The Analects" (Luận Ngữ, 論語) and "Mencius" (Mạnh Tử, 孟子); Five Pre-Confucian Classics (Ngũ Kinh, 五經): "Book of Odes (Kinh Thi, 詩經), "Book of Annals" (Kinh Thư, 書經), "Book of Rites" (Kinh Lễ, 禮記), "Book of Change" (Kinh Dịch, 易經) and "Book of Spring and Autumn" (Kinh Xuân Thu, 春秋); ancient poetry and Chinese history among others.
The students enrolled for three to seven years. They had minor tests each month and four major tests per year. Success in the exams, certified by the Ministry of Rites (Bộ Lễ, 禮部) qualified them to sit the national exam (Hội Examination - Thi Hội). Success at the Hội Examination qualified the student to sit the royal exam, the Đình Examination (Thi Đình), held at court. At this exam, the monarch himself posed the questions, responded to the candidate's answer and then ranked those who passed into different grades. The Imperial Academy was the largest centre in the country.
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The Trần dynasty (Nhà Trần, 陳朝, Trần triều[2][3]) ruled in Vietnam (then known as Đại Việt) from 1225 to 1400. The dynasty was founded when emperor Trần Thái Tông ascended to the throne after his uncle Trần Thủ Độ orchestrated the overthrow of the Lý dynasty. The final emperor of the dynasty was Thiếu Đế, who at the age of five years was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his maternal grandfather, Hồ Quý Ly. The Trần dynasty defeated three Mongol invasions, most notably in the decisive Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 1288.[4]
Reconstruction of a Trần-era cataphract.
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The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian before they migrated under Trần Kính (陳京, Chén Jīng) to Đại Việt, where their mixed-blooded descendants established the Trần dynasty which ruled Đại Việt. The descendants of the Trần clan who came to rule Đại Việt were of mixed-blooded descent due to many intermarriages between the Trần and several royal members of the Lý dynasty alongside members of their royal court as in the case of Trần Lý[5][6] and Trần Thừa, the latter whose son Trần Thái Tông would later become the first emperor of the Trần dynasty.[7] Their descendants established the Tran dynasty, which ruled Vietnam (Dai Viet).
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Some of the mixed-blooded descendants and certain members of the clan could still speak Chinese, as when a Yuan dynasty envoy met with the Chinese-speaking Tran Prince Trần Quốc Tuấn in 1282.[1][2][3][8][9][10][11][12][13] The first of the Trần clan to live in Đại Việt was Trần Kinh, who settled in Tức Mặc village (now Mỹ Lộc, Nam Định) who lived by fishing.[14][15] After three generations in Đại Việt, the Trần clan became a rich and powerful family under Trần Lý, who was Trần Kinh's grandson.
During the troubled time under the reign of Lý Cao Tông, the Crown Prince Lý Sảm sought refuge in the family of Trần Lý and decided to marry his beautiful daughter Trần Thị Dung in 1209.[17] Afterward, it was the Trần clan who helped Lý Cao Tông and Lý Sảm restore the throne in Thăng Long. As a result, the Emperor appointed several members of the Trần clan for high positions in the royal court, such as Tô Trung Từ, who was an uncle of Trần Thị Dung, and Trần Tự Khánh and Trần Thừa, who were Trần Lý's sons.[17] In 1211 the Crown Prince Lý Sảm was enthroned as Lý Huệ Tông after the death of Lý Cao Tông. By that time the Trần clan's position began to rise in the royal court.
Having been mentally ill for a long time, the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông ultimately decided to cede the throne of the Lý dynasty to crown princess Lý Chiêu Hoàng in October of the lunar calendar, 1224.[20] Ascending the throne at the age of only six, Lý Chiêu Hoàng ruled under the total influence of the commander of the royal guard, Trần Thủ Độ. Even the Empress Regnant's servants were chosen by Trần Thủ Độ; one of them was his 7-year-old nephew Trần Cảnh.[21]
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When Trần Cảnh informed Trần Thủ Độ that the Empress Regnant seemed to have affection towards him, the leader of the Trần clan immediately decided to take this chance to carry out his plot to overthrow the Lý dynasty and establish a new dynasty ruled by his own clan. First Trần Thủ Độ moved the whole Trần clan to the royal palace and arranged a secret marriage between Lý Chiêu Hoàng and Trần Cảnh there, without the appearance of any mandarin or member of the Lý royal family.
After that, he announced the fait accompli to the royal court and made Lý Chiêu Hoàng cede the throne to her new husband on the grounds that she was incapable of holding office. Thus Trần Cảnh was chosen as her successor. As a result, the 216-year reign of the Lý dynasty was ended and the new Trần dynasty was created on the first day of the twelfth lunar month (Gregorian: December 31), 1225.
After the collapse of the Lý Dynasty, Trần Thủ Độ was still afraid that the newly established Trần Dynasty might be overthrown by its political opponents. He therefore continued to ruthlessly eliminate members of the Lý royal family. First the former emperor Lý Huệ Tông in the tenth lunar month of 1226,[24] then other members of the Lý royal family were massacred by the order of Trần Thủ Độ in the eighth lunar month of 1232.[25][26][27]
Trần royal battle standard
Trần Thái Tông was enthroned when he was only eight-years-old. There were several rebellions in Đại Việt at that time, so Trần Thủ Độ had to devote all of his efforts to consolidating the rule of Thái Tông in the royal court and over the country.
Right after the coronation of the Emperor in 1226, Nguyễn Nộn and Đoàn Thượng rose in revolt in the mountainous region of Bắc Giang and Hải Dương. By both military and diplomatic measures, such as sending an army and by awarding two leaders of the revolt the title of Prince (Vương), Trần Thủ Độ was able to put down this revolt in 1229.
According to Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, Thái Tông and his wife, the Empress Chiêu Thánh, did not have their first son for some time.
This situation worried the grand chancellor Trần Thủ Độ because he had profited from similar circumstances with the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông in overthrowing the Lý dynasty. Therefore, in 1237 Trần Thủ Độ decided to force Prince Hoài Trần Liễu, Thái Tông's elder brother, to give up his wife, Princess Thuận Thiên, for the Emperor when she had been pregnant with Trần Quốc Khang for three months.
After the royal marriage, Thuận Thiên was entitled the new empress of the Trần dynasty, while Chiêu Thánh was downgraded to princess. Furious at losing his pregnant wife, Trần Liễu rose in revolt against the royal family. Meanwhile, Thái Tông felt awkward about the situation and decided to become a monk at Yên Tử Mountain in Quảng Ninh.
Finally Trần Thủ Độ successfully persuaded Thái Tông to return to the throne, and Trần Liễu had to surrender after judging that he could not stand with his fragile force.
All soldiers who participated in this revolt were killed; Trần Thủ Độ even wanted to behead Trần Liễu but was stopped by Thái Tông. Fujian was the origin of the Trần ancestors who migrated to Vietnam under Trần Kinh along with a large amount of other Chinese during the Ly dynasty where they served as officials.
Distinctly Chinese last names are found in the Tran and Ly dynasty Imperial exam records.
Ethnic Chinese are recorded in Tran and Ly dynasty records of officials.
Clothing, food, and language were all Chinese dominated in Van Don where the Tran had moved to after leaving their home province of Fujian. The Chinese language could still be spoken by the Tran in Vietnam.
The oceanside area of Vietnam was colonized by Chinese migrants from Fujian which included the Tran among them located to the capital's southeastern area.[36][37] The Red River Delta was subjected to migration from Fujian including the Tran and Van Don port arose as a result of this interaction.[38] Guangdong and Fujian Chinese moved to the Halong located Van Don coastal port during Ly Anh Tong's rule in order to engage in commerce. The usurpation of the Ly occurred after they married with the fishing Fujianese Tran family.
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In 1257 the Trần dynasty was faced with the first Mongol invasion of Đại Việt.[41] At the beginning of the war, the Đại Việt army suffered several defeats by an overwhelming force that had already conquered a vast area in Asia. Several high-ranking officials of the Trần dynasty were so fearful that Prince Khâm Thiên Trần Nhật Hiệu, the younger brother of Thái Tông, even suggested to the Emperor that they might escape from Đại Việt to the Song dynasty.[42] Due to the firm faith of Emperor Thái Tông, grand chancellor Trần Thủ Độ, and talented generals such as Prince Hưng Đạo Trần Quốc Tuấn and Lê Phụ Trần, the Trần dynasty was able to drive back the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace in Đại Việt in the twelfth lunar month of 1257.
In the twelfth lunar month of 1284, the second Yuan invasion of Đại Việt was launched under the command of Kublai Khan's prince Toghon.[45] Đại Việt was attacked from two directions, with Toghan himself conducting an infantry invasion from the northern border while the Yuan navy under general Sogetu advanced from the southern border through the territory of Champa.[46] Initially, Trần Thánh Tông and Trần Nhân Tông had to order the army to retreat to avoid the pressure from the Yuan force when Prince Chiêu Minh Trần Quang Khải commanded his troops to try to stop Sogetu's fleet in the province of Nghệ An.
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Meanwhile, several high-ranking officials and members of the royal family of the Trần dynasty defected to the Yuan side, including Thánh Tông's own brother, Prince Chiêu Quốc (Trần Ích Tắc) and Trần Kiện, who was the son of Prince Tĩnh Quốc (Trần Quốc Khang). To ensure the safety of Thánh Tông and Nhân Tông during their retreat, Princess An Tư was offered as a present and diversion for prince Toghan, while Marquis Bảo Nghĩa (Trần Bình Trọng) was captured and later killed in the Battle of Đà Mạc defending the two emperors.[47] At the southern border, Trần Quang Khải also had to retreat under the pressure of Sogetu's navy and the defection of the governor of Nghe An.
This critical situation for the Trần dynasty began to change after their victory in the fourth lunar month of 1285 at the Battle of Hàm Tử, where the troops commanded by Trần Nhật Duật, Prince Chiêu Thành, Trần Quốc Toản, and Nguyễn Khoái were finally able to defeat the fleet of general Sogetu. On the tenth day of the fifth lunar month of 1285, Trần Quang Khải fought the decisive battle in the Chương Dương, where the Yuan navy was almost destroyed and the balance in the battlefield tilted definitively in favor of the Trần dynasty.[48][49] Ten days later Sogetu was killed and the Trần Emperor Nhân Tông and Emperor Emeritus Thánh Tông returned to the capital, Thăng Long, on the sixth day of the sixth lunar month, 1285.
In the third lunar month of 1287, the Yuan dynasty launched their third invasion of Đại Việt.[51] This time, unlike the second invasion, commander-in-chief Prince Hưng Đạo (Trần Quốc Tuấn) assured the Emperor that Đại Việt's army could easily break the Yuan military campaign. This invasion was indeed ended one year later by a disastrous defeat of the Yuan navy at the Battle of Bạch Đằng on the eighth day of the third lunar month, 1288.[52] Besides Trần Quốc Tuấn, other notable generals of the Trần dynasty during this time were Prince Nhân Huệ Trần Khánh Dư, who destroyed the logistics convoy of the Yuan navy[53][54][55][56] at the Battle of Vân Đồn, and general Phạm Ngũ Lão, who took charge of ambushing prince Toghan's retreating troops.
Professor Liam Kelley noted that people from Song dynasty China like Zhao Zhong and Xu Zongdao fled to Tran dynasty ruled Vietnam after the Mongol invasion of the Song and they helped the Tran fight against the Mongol invasion. The Tran dynasty originated from the Fujian region of China as did the Daoist cleric Xu Zongdao who recorded the Mongol invasion and referred to them as "Northern bandits".
Wu Bozong 吳伯宗 (b. 1334- d. 1384) was sent as ambassador to Annam and wrote down in the Rongjinji 榮進集 that the Tran dynasty monarch said to him in a reply his Wu's inquiry on Annam's affairs where the Tran ruler said that Annam proudly adhered to Tang dynasty and Han dynasty customs.
欲問安南事，
安南風俗淳。
衣冠唐制度，
禮樂漢君臣。
玉甕開新酒，
金刀斫細鱗。
年年二三月，
桃李一般春。
After the three invasions, the people of Đại Việt were finally able to enjoy a long period of prosperity and peace during the reigns of Trần Anh Tông, Trần Minh Tông, and Trần Hiến Tông.[60][61] Anh Tông was the first Trần emperor to reign without facing attacks from the Mongol Empire.
Despite the deaths of the two most important generals of the early Trần dynasty, Trần Quang Khải in 1294 and Trần Quốc Tuấn in 1300, the Emperor was still served by many efficient mandarins like Trần Nhật Duật, Đoàn Nhữ Hài, Phạm Ngũ Lão, Trương Hán Siêu, Mạc Đĩnh Chi, and Nguyễn Trung Ngạn. Anh Tông was very strict in suppressing gambling and corruption, but he also generously rewarded those who served him well.
In 1306, the king of Champa, Chế Mân, offered Vietnam two Cham prefectures, Ô and Lý, in exchange for a marriage with the Vietnamese princess Huyền Trân.[63] Anh Tông accepted this offer, then took and renamed Ô prefecture and Lý prefecture to Thuận prefecture and Hóa prefecture.
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These two prefectures soon began to be referred to collectively as the Thuận Hóa region.[63] Only one year into the marriage, Chế Mân died and, in line with the royal tradition of Champa, Huyền Trân was to be cremated with her husband. Facing this urgent condition, Anh Tông sent his mandarin Trần Khắc Chung to Champa to save Huyền Trân from an imminent death. Finally Huyền Trân was able to return to Đại Việt, but Chế Chí, the successor of Chế Mân, no longer wished to abide by the peace treaty with Đại Việt.
After that event, Anh Tông himself, along with the generals Trần Quốc Chân and Trần Khánh Dư, commanded three groups of Đại Việt military units to attack Champa in 1312. Chế Chí was defeated and captured in this invasion,[64] and Anh Tông installed a hand-picked successor, but the relations between Đại Việt and Champa remained strained for a long time afterwards.
An extremely rare laddle -South China/Northern Vietnam - Dong Son culture
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After the death of the Retired Emperor Trần Minh Tông in 1357, the Trần dynasty began to fall into chaos during the reign of Trần Dụ Tông. While being modest and diligent under the regency of Minh Tông, the reign of Emperor Dụ Tông saw extravagant spending on the building of several luxurious palaces and other indulgences.
Dụ Tông introduced theatre, which was considered at the time to be a shameful pleasure, into the royal court.[69] The Emperor died on the 25th day of the fifth lunar month, 1369, at the age of 28, after appointing his brother's son Dương Nhật Lễ despite the fact that his appointee was not from the Trần clan.
Like his predecessor Dụ Tông, Nhật Lễ neglected his administrative duties and concentrated only on drinking, theatre, and wandering. He even wanted to change his family name back to Dương. Such activities disappointed everyone in the royal court. This prompted the Prime Minister Trần Nguyên Trác and his son Trần Nguyên Tiết to plot the assassination of Nhật Lễ, but their conspiracy was discovered by the Emperor and they were killed afterwards.
In the tenth lunar month of 1370, the Emperor's father-in-law, Trần Phủ, after receiving advice from several mandarins and members of the royal family, decided to raise an army for the purpose of overthrowing Nhật Lễ. After one month, his plan succeeded and Trần Phủ became the new emperor of Đại Việt, ruling as Trần Nghệ Tông, while Nhật Lễ was downgraded to Duke of Hôn Đức (Hôn Đức Công) and was killed afterwards by an order of Nghệ Tông.
After the death of Hôn Đức Công, his mother fled to Champa and begged King Chế Bồng Nga to attack Đại Việt. Taking advantage of his neighbour's lack of political stability, Chế Bồng Nga commanded troops and directly assaulted Thăng Long, the capital of Đại Việt. The Trần army could not withstand this attack and the Trần royal court had to escape from Thăng Long, creating an opportunity for Chế Bồng Nga to violently loot the capital before withdrawing. In the twelfth lunar month of 1376 the Emperor Trần Duệ Tông decided to personally command a military campaign against Champa.
Eventually, the campaign was ended by a disastrous defeat of Đại Việt's army at the Battle of Đồ Bàn, when the Emperor himself, along with many high-ranking madarins and generals of the Trần dynasty, were killed by the Cham forces.[76] The successor of Duệ Tông, Trần Phế Đế, and the retired Emperor Nghệ Tông, were unable to drive back any invasion of Chế Bồng Nga in Đại Việt.
As a result, Nghệ Tông even decided to hide money in Lạng Sơn, fearing that Chế Bồng Nga's troops might assault and destroy the royal palace in Thăng Long.
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In 1389 general Trần Khát Chân was appointed by Nghệ Tông to take charge of stopping Champa.
In the first lunar month of 1390, Trần Khát Chân had a decisive victory over Champa which resulted in the death of Chế Bồng Nga and stabilised situation in the southern part of Đại Việt.[80]
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During the reign of Trần Nghệ Tông, Hồ Quý Ly, an official who had two aunts entitled as consorts of Minh Tông,[81] was appointed to one of the highest positions in the royal court.
Despite his complicity in the death of the Emperor Duệ Tông, Hồ Quý Ly still had Nghệ Tông's confidence and came to hold more and more power in royal court.
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Facing the unstoppable rise of Hồ Quý Ly in the court, the Emperor Trần Phế Đế plotted with minister Trần Ngạc to reduce Hồ Quý Ly's power, but Hồ Quý Ly pre-empted this plot by a defamation campaign against the Emperor which ultimately made Nghệ Tông decide to replace him by Trần Thuận Tông and downgrade Phế Đế to Prince Linh Đức in December 1388.
Trần Nghệ Tông died on the 15th day of the twelfth lunar month, 1394 at the age of 73 leaving the royal court in the total control of Hồ Quý Ly.
He began to reform the administrative and examination systems of the Trần dynasty and eventually obliged Thuận Tông to change the capital from Thăng Long to Thanh Hóa in January 1397.
Tran dynasty shield
On the full moon of the third lunar month, 1398, under pressure from Hồ Quý Ly, Thuận Tông, had to cede the throne to his three-year-old son Trần An, now Trần Thiếu Đế, and held the title Retired Emperor at the age of only 20. Only one year after his resignation, Thuận Tông was killed on the orders of Hồ Quý Ly.
zerolin
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Hồ Quý Ly also authorised the execution of over 370 persons who opposed his dominance in the royal court, including several prominent mandarins and the Emperor's relatives together with their families, such as Trần Khát Chân, Trần Hãng, Phạm Khả Vĩnh and Lương Nguyên Bưu.
Tran dynasty statue reflecting armors of those times.
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The end of the Trần dynasty came on the 28th day of the second lunar month (Gregorian: March 23) 1400, when Hồ Quý Ly decided to overthrow Thiếu Đế and established a new dynasty, the Hồ dynasty.
Being Hồ Quý Ly's own grandson, Thiếu Đế was downgraded to Prince Bảo Ninh instead of being killed like his father.The Hồ clan originated in Zhejiang province of China.
To restore the country's economy, which had been heavily damaged during the turbulent time at the end of the Lý dynasty, Emperor Trần Thái Tông decided to reform the nation's system of taxation by introducing a new personal tax (thuế thân), which was levied on each person according to the area of cultivated land owned.
For example, a farmer who owned one or two mẫu, equal to 3,600 to 7,200 square metres (39,000 to 78,000 sq ft), had to pay one quan per year, while another with up to four mẫus had to pay two quan.
Besides personal taxes, farmers were obliged to pay a land tax in measures of rice that was calculated by land classification.
One historical book reveals that the Trần dynasty taxed everything from fish and fruits to betel.
Taxpayers were divided into three categories: minors (tiểu hoàng nam, from 18 to 20), adults (đại hoàng nam, from 20 to 60), and seniors (lão hạng, over 60).
During the reign of Trần Thánh Tông members of the Trần clan and royal family were required by the Emperor to take full advantage of their land grants by hiring the poor to cultivate them.
Đại Việt's cultivated land was annually ruined by river floods, so for a more stable agriculture, in 1244 Trần Thái Tông ordered his subordinates to construct a new system of levees along the Red River.
Farmers who had to sacrifice their land for the diking were compensated with the value of the land.
The Emperor also appointed a separate official to control the system.
There is evidence for the use of feng shui by Trần dynasty officials, such as in 1248 when Trần Thủ Độ ordered several feng shui masters to block many spots over the country for the purpose of protecting the newly founded Trần dynasty from its opponents.
Achievements in science during the Trần dynasty were not detailed in historical accounts, though a notable scientist named Đặng Lộ was mentioned several times in Đại Việt sử kí toàn thư.
It was said that Đặng Lộ was appointed by Retired Emperor Minh Tông to the position of national inspector (liêm phóng sứ) but he was noted for his invention called lung linh nghi which was a type of armillary sphere for astronomic measurement.
From the result in observation, Đặng Lộ successfully persuaded the emperor to modify the calendar in 1339 for a better fit with the agricultural seasons in Đại Việt.
Marquis Trần Nguyên Đán, a superior of Đặng Lộ in the royal court, was also an expert in calendar calculation.
Near the end of the Trần dynasty the technology of gunpowder appeared in the historical records of Đại Việt and was responsible for the death of the King of Champa, Chế Bồng Nga, after the Trần general Trần Khát Chân fired a cannon at his battleship in January 1390.
According to the NUS researcher Sun Laichen, the Trần dynasty acquired gunpowder technology from China and effectively used it to change the balance of power between Đại Việt and Champa in favour of Đại Việt.
As a result of this Sun reasoned that the need for copper for manufacturing firearms was probably another reason for the order of Hồ Quý Ly to change from copper coins to paper money in 1396.
The people of the Trần dynasty and later Hồ dynasty were not satisfied with the imported technology and continued to improve their firearms using gunpowder.
The development of Đại Việt technology in using gunpowder resulted in weapons of superior quality to their Chinese counterparts. These were acquired by the Ming dynasty in their invasion of Đại Việt.
During the rule of the Trần dynasty, medicine had a better chance to develop because of a more significant role of Confucianism in society.
In 1261, the emperor issued an order to establish the Institute of Royal Physicians (Thái y viện) which took charge of managing medicine in Đại Việt, carrying out the examination for new physicians and treating people during disease epidemics.
In 1265 the institute distributed a pill named Hồng ngọc sương to the poor, which they considered able to cure many diseases.
Besides the traditional Northern herbs (thuốc Bắc), Trần physicians also began to cultivate and gather various regional medicinal herbs (thuốc Nam) for treating both civilians and soldiers.
During the reign of Trần Minh Tông the head of the Institute of Royal Physicians Phạm Công Bân was widely known for his medical ethics, treating patients regardless of their descent with his own medicine made from regional herbs; it was said that Phạm Công Bân gathered his remedies in a medical book named Thái y dịch bệnh (Diseases by the Royal Physician).
Another Trần person and fellow countryman of Phạm Công Bân was the monk Tuệ Tĩnh, one of the most famous physicians in Vietnamese history, who was called "Father of the Southern Medicine" for creating the basis of Vietnamese traditional medicine with his works Hồng nghĩa giác tư y thư and Nam dược thần hiệu.
Nam dược thần hiệu was a collection of 499 manuscripts about local herbs and ten branches of treatment with 3932 prescriptions to cure 184 type of diseases while Hồng nghĩa giác tư y thư provided people with many simple, easy-to-prepare medicines with high effect.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty
Wang Anshi and Five Scholars
To begin with, he came fourth in the imperial civil service exam - quite an achievement, as Frances Wood, curator of the Chinese collection at the British Library explains.
"There were a series - you have local exams, provincial exams, and then the central imperial exam, so you've got lots of people falling by the wayside at the local exams or the provincial exams, so absolutely the creme de la creme get through to even take the central imperial examinations.
"So to come fourth in the whole of China… think of the size of China. To come fourth out of thousands? Tens of thousands of people? It's absolutely massive."
For centuries the civil service was almost the only way to a better life and families gambled all on getting their sons in.
Some candidates had to spend three days and nights in an examination cell measuring 6ft by 3ft (1.8m by 0.9m), the culmination of years of rote learning.
"The civil service exams developed over the centuries," says Wood.
"The essays were largely to do with the content of the Confucian classics - how do you rule the people? You rule them through good, you rule them through example. It's morality that they're being examined on - their ability to cough up gobbets of Confucian morality."
The successful Wang Anshi was sent off to administer a southern entrepreneurial city.
You can imagine him on an inspection tour, peering out through the silk curtains of his sedan chair at the stallholders and hawkers.
But after 20 years of this, it was clear to him that writing essays about Confucian virtue just wasn't relevant any more. A civil servant needed a different skill set.
"Under the previous dynasties, the cities were fairly rigidly controlled. Markets were held on fixed days, on fixed points and so on," says Wood.
"By the Song dynasty, you begin to get ordinary city life as we know it. Cities are much freer, so commerce is much freer."
The Chinese economy was far more commercialised than it had ever been before, says Peter Bol of Harvard University, who has written about this period.
"The money supply has increased 30-fold. The merchant networks have spread. Villages are moving away from self-sufficiency and getting connected to a cash economy.
"The government no longer controls the economic hierarchy, which is largely in private hands... it's a far richer world than ever before."
Wang Anshi (1021-1086)
Qualified aged 21 as an "advanced scholar" in the civil service examinations.
Wrote a 10,000-word memo to Emperor Rensong in 1058 arguing that China's officials were not fit for purpose, and needed better training.
Appointed as privy counsellor in 1067, he began to roll out "new policies".
As an economic stimulus, he introduced government loans for farmers, and pumped money into the economy by minting coins.
He irritated conservatives by carrying out a land survey to reassess property taxes.
He did away with recitation of classics and poetry composition in the civil service exams, instead putting an emphasis on law, medicine and military science. Resigned in 1074, returned to civil service in 1075, then retired for good in 1076 to write poetry.
But all this created problems. As large land-owning estates grew, so did the number of people who were unwilling to pay their taxes - and the more rich people evaded tax, the more the burden fell on the poor. There was also problem with the neighbours.
The Song emperors often found themselves at war on their northern borders. Jin and Mongol invaders were annexing Chinese land, so lots of money had to be spent on defence, and inflation took hold.
The dynasty was plunged into crisis. But cometh the hour, cometh Wang Anshi, and his programme for a new style of government.
"There never has been such a scarcity of capable men in the service of the State. Even if they should go on learning in school until their hair turned grey, they would have only the vaguest notion of what to do in office.
"No matter how fine the orders of the Court, the benefit is never realised by the people because of the incapacity of local officials.
Moreover, some take advantage of these orders to carry on corrupt practices," said Wang Anshi.
In 1067 a young emperor came to the throne, hungry for new ideas, and Wang Anshi got his chance.
Once in the top ranks of the civil service, Wang Anshi set about diluting Confucius and surrounding himself with like-minded men. Morality was out, maths and medicine were in.
"He was trying to reform the examination system," says Xun Zhou, a historian at Hong Kong university. "So he got rid of some of the subjects. He introduced more practical subjects, so that enabled people with practical skills into the government."
Archaeologists exploring the remote mesas of northern Arizona have uncovered a trove of previously undocumented rock art, including more than 1,500 petroglyphs, and confirmed the presence a prehistoric solar calendar, which has been marking the seasons for more than 700 years with a striking “shadow dagger” that travels across its sandstone face. Researchers made these finds in the backcountry of Wupatki National Monument northeast of Flagstaff, which includes the ruins of dozens of sites built by Ancestral Puebloans known as the Kayenta and the Sinagua. Over nearly two years, including many special visits to watch the interplay of sunlight at certain spots during equinoxes and solstices, the researchers combed areas known as Horseshoe Mesa, Middle Mesa, and an unnamed landform that they dubbed Little Mesa. In that time, they documented 122 panels of petroglyphs at Horseshoe Mesa — 50 of which had never been recorded before — and 107 panels at Middle Mesa, 88 of which were new to scientists. Many of the panels contained several, sometimes dozens, of individual petroglyphs, resulting in more than 1,500 separate glyphs being recorded for the first time. The most recent markings include graffiti made by American travelers in the late 1800s, and historic-era images of horses, barns, and cattle, sometimes with visible brands, scratched into the rock by Navajo inhabitants. http://westerndigs.org/thousands-of-ancient-petroglyphs-including-dramatic-solar-calendar-found-in-northern-arizona/
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As is often the case, the good man comes up against entrenched, corrupt bureaucrats who didn't want any changes and they turned the emperor against him.
And once they were in, Wang Anshi asked them practical questions. How can we improve education? How can we improve agriculture? How can we provide credit to farmers?
How can we ensure a flow of goods? The British TV comedy Yes Minister was a big hit when it was broadcast on China's state television.
It was subtitled in Chinese but everyone here understood the rigidity, self interest, buckpassing, and infighting at its heart.
The civil service has a way of doing things, and in the 11th Century Wang Anshi was turning it upside down, asking the mandarins to roll up their sleeves and manage every corner of the economy. He wanted state loans for farmers, more taxes for landowners, centralised procurement.
Tangerine quartz
But he was not watching his back. He was too sure of himself and too focused on the big picture. Then events - a drought and a famine - overtook him. It was the opportunity his rivals had been waiting for.
"You have this clash between someone who is obviously very bright, very brilliant, and then he's faced with these corrupt people who've managed to buy their way in," says Frances Wood. "As is often the case, the good man comes up against entrenched, corrupt bureaucrats who didn't want any changes and they turned the emperor against him."
"If the emperor perceives that there's a group of people, a group can grow into something bigger, and I think it's almost more dangerous to be part of a group than it is to be a lone figure crying wolf," says Wood.
"Because you're disgraced, but you can't be accused of being a conspirator."
So it's a difficult game to be a reformist in China. It's safer to stick with the prevailing wisdom, and keep your head down.
Wang Anshi retired in 1076, depressed by demotion and the death of his son. He spent the final years of his life writing poetry.
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-19962432
Zhuàngyuán, or trạng nguyên in Vietnamese, variously translated into English as principal graduate, primus, or optimus, was the title given to the scholar who achieved the highest score on highest level of the Imperial examination,省試 [ja](in Tang) and 殿試 [zh](in Song)[2] in ancient China and Vietnam.
Ái Vân - Trăng Sáng Vườn Chè (Văn Phụng) PBN 24
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Fu Shanxiang is known as the first (and last) female zhuangyuan (nü zhuangyuan) in Chinese history, but under the Taiping Tianguo, not the regular imperial exams. After the Taipings captured the city of Nanjing, they offered an exam for women in January 1853 in which Fu attained the highest score.
Noteworthy Trạng nguyên
Lê Văn Thịnh, the first trạng nguyên in history.
Lý Đạo Tái (Huyền Quang)
Mạc Đĩnh Chi
Nguyễn Trực
Phạm Đôn Lễ
Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm
Nguyễn Đăng Đạo
Trịnh Tuệ
Phan Đình Phùng
Nguyễn Phong Di, the last trạng nguyên in history.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuangyuan
Invigilators seated on high chairs at a provincial exam in 1888 in northern Vietnam.
The Confucian court examination system in Vietnam (Chinese: 越南科舉制度, Vietnamese : Chế-độ khoa-cử Việt-nam ; 1075 – 1913) was a system for entry into the civil service modelled on the Imperial examination in China, based on knowledge of the classics and literary style.
The exams entered Vietnam during the long era of Chinese occupation and adopted by subsequent independent dynasties as a way of filling the civil service. They were instituted at court level by the Lý Dynasty's Emperor Lý Nhân Tông in 1075 and continued some 1000 years later toward the final years of the Nguyễn Dynasty's Emperor Khải Định.
Nemertea is a phylum of invertebrate animals also known as Ribbon worms. They are also known as Proboscis worms because they can extend a proboscis to capture their food. There are about 1,400 species of ribbon worms nearly all of which are found in oceans around the world. Most species live on or in the sea floor, with many species found in brackish water in estuaries, and even some freshwater and land-based species. Their habitats include - in and among seaweeds, rocks, mussel and barnacle beds, under shells or buried in mud, sand, or gravel substrates. They have a similar appearance to flatworms although they usually are larger, thicker-bodied, and longer. The largest species may grow to several metres or more but some species are less than 20 cm in length, and some just five millimetres long. Most species are pale, some are brightly coloured with patterns of yellow, orange, red and green. Nemertea have long, thin, unsegmented bodies. They have no true head and have an eversible (can be turned inside out) proboscis which is used for catching prey. They have a digestive system which includes a mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestine and anus. Most nemerteans are carnivores and predators, although some are scavengers and others are herbivores. They catch their prey with their proboscis which is wrapped around the prey which is then stabbed until it is dead. In some species the proboscis has a sharp part attached (a stylet). In some species the stylet contains a poison to kill prey faster. Mot species have males and females which release sperm and eggs into the water. Only some species produce larvae, the majority produce offspring which resemble the adults. http://www.mesa.edu.au/marine_worms/marine_worms07.asp
The examinations were suspended by the French in 1913 with the very last local exams occurring from 1915 to 1919, thus making Vietnam the last country to hold Confucian civil service examinations.
In 1428, legend has it that Emperor Le Loi obtained a magical sword from the Dragon King to fight against Chinese oppressors. The sword, as you may have guessed, came from Hoan Kiem lake. After the successful battle against the Chinese invaders, Emperor Le Loi visited the beautiful lake. He was boating through the still waters when an enormous golden turtle surfaced. The turtle explained that he was sent by his master, the Dragon King, to retrieve the sword from Le Loi. Loi returned the sword to the turtle, who swam back beneath the jade waters. Loi then named the area Hoan Kiem lake, meaning “Lake of the Returned Sword” to commemorate the spectacular event. Turtle Tower lies on an island in the middle of the lake. After the gigantic turtle reclaimed the sword for its master, turtles began to be revered around Hoan Kiem lake. There was one turtle living in the water that was thought to be the incarnation of the mythical turtle Le Loi met in 1428. Affectionately named Cu Rua, the massive turtle was thought to be one of four Yangtze giant soft-shell turtles in the entire world. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/vietnam/articles/hoan-kiem-lake-hanoi-what-to-know-and-do/
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The royal court exams were typically held every three years, though the award of first prizes was far less frequent. The examination system was divided into a regional and a national examination held at the royal capital. Provincial examinations led only to the degree of tú tài (秀才 junior bachelor) and cử nhân (舉人 senior bachelor). From 1829 a provincial mandarin could progress to phó bảng, the lowest level of national exam, under the scholars with the rank of tiến sĩ.
The examinations themselves were composed of three or four tests, followed by a phúc hạch or control examination to confirm identity. Aside from accrediting rank and file scholars to the court and mandarin civil service positions gleaned from the successful regional candidates, the exams also appointed lead scholars for the court exam (Thi Đình) in the capital, the title of trạng nguyên. This title was first awarded to Lê Văn Thịnh (d.1096).
Subsequent exams starting in 1247 and onward were divided into three first class grades along the Chinese model with trạng nguyên as the first of three prizes. The first trạng nguyên under this system was Nguyễn Hiền.
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The full list of trạng nguyên therefore includes 55 scholars if beginning from Lê Văn Thịnh, but only 49 if commencing from Nguyễn Hiền (awarded 1247, in the reign of Trần Thái Tông).
A private class at home in Vietnam about 1895
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The three titles were as follows :
Trạng nguyên (狀元) – first place, reserved for the best scholar
Bảng nhãn (榜眼) – second place
Thám hoa (探花) – third place
Tiến sĩ (進士) – all the other successful applicants
The list of trạng nguyên includes several notable figures in Vietnam's history, such as Mạc Đĩnh Chi (awarded 1304, in the reign of Trần Anh Tông) and Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (awarded 1535, in the reign of Mạc Thái Tông). The last trạng nguyên was awarded to Trịnh Tuệ in 1736 during the reign of Lê Ý Tông.
"The classical examination system was divided into a regional and a general examination (the last one was organized at the royal capital). The first led to the degree of tu tai (junior bachelor) and cu nhan (senior bachelor), the second to pho bang (junior doctor) and tien si (senior doctor). After the abolition of the examination system in 1913, the French introduced a new system, but ..."
Truong Buu Lâm, New lamps for old: the transformation of the Vietnamese ... -Institute of Southeast Asian Studies – 1982 Page 11- "The provincial examinations consisted of three to four parts which tested the following areas: knowledge of the Confucian texts...The title of cu nhan or "person presented" (for office) was conferred on those who succeeded in all four tests."
" For those successful in the court competitive examination four titles were awarded: trang nguyen, being the first- rank doctorate and first laureate, bang nhan, being a first-rank doctorate and second laureate; tham hoa, being a first-rank ..."...
https://www.revolvy.com/page/Confucian-court-examination-system-in-Vietnam?smv=26633658&cr=1
House, Qing dynasty, family
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Imperial China employed a civil examination system to select scholar bureau-crats as ruling elites. This institution dissuaded high-performing individuals frompursuing some modernization activities, such as establishing modern rms or study-ing overseas. This study uses prefecture-level panel data from 1896-1910 to compare the effects of the chance of passing the civil examination on modernization before and after the abolition of the examination system.
Its ndings show that prefec-tures with higher quotas of successful candidates tended to establish more modern rms and send more students to Japan once the examination system was abolished.
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As higher quotas were assigned to prefectures that had an agricultural tax in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643) of more than 150,000 stones, I adopt a regression dis-continuity design to generate an instrument to resolve the potential endogeneity,and nd that the results remain robust. Rent seeking is costly to economic growth if \the ablest young people become rent seekers than producers" (Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny 1991: 529).
Theoretical studies suggest that if a society speci es a higher payoff for rent seeking rather than productive activi-ties, more talent would be allocated in unproductive directions (Acemoglu 1995; Baumol 1990; Murphy, Shleifer, and Vishny 1991, 1993). This was the case in late Imperial China, when a large part of the ruling class { scholar bureaucrats { was selected on the basis of the imperial civil examination.
The Chinese elites were provided with great incentives to invest in a traditional education and take the civil examination, and hence few in-centives to study other \useful knowledge" (Kuznets 1965), such as Western science and technology. Thus the civil examination constituted an institutional obstacle to the rise of modern science and industry (Baumol 1990; Clark and Feenstra 2003; Huff 2003; Lin1995).
This paper identi es the negative incentive effect of the civil exam on modernization by exploring the impact of the system's abolition in 1904-05.
The main empirical difficulty is that the abolition was universal, with no regional variation in policy implementation. To better understand the modernizing effect of the system's abolition, I employ a simple conceptual framework that incorporates two choices open to Chinese elites: to learn from the West and pursue some modernization activities or to invest in preparing for the civil examination.
In this model, the elites with a greater chance of passing the examination would be less likely to learn from the West; they would tend to pursue more modernization activities after its abolition.
Accordingly, the regions with a higher chance of passing the exam should be those with a larger increase in modernization activities after the abolition, which makes it possible to employ a difference-in-differences (DID) method to identify the causal effect of abolishing the civil examination on modernization. I exploit the variation in the probability of passing the examination among prefectures { an administrative level between the provincial and county levels.
To control the regional composition of successful candidates, the central government of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) allocated a quota of successful candidates to each prefecture. In terms of the chances of individual participants { measured by the ratio of quotas to population {there were great inequalities among the regions (Chang 1955).
To measure the level of modernization activities in a region, I employ (1) the number of newly modern private rms (per million inhabitants) above a designated size that has equipping steam engineor electricity as a proxy for the adoption of Western technology and (2) the number of new Chinese students in Japan { the most import host country of Chinese overseas students (per million inhabitants) as a proxy of learning Western science.
Though the two measures might capture other things, for instance entrepreneurship or human capital accumulation, the two activities are both intense in modern science and technology, and thus employed as the proxies of modernization. Our empirical results show that the prefectures with higher quotas tended to establish more modern enterprises and send more students to Japan once the decision to abolish the examination system was taken.
Evaluated at the sample mean, a one-standard deviation increase in the logged-quota density (0.70) would lead to 0.23 new modern rms and 0.66 students to Japan per year.
The empirical results remain robust after controlling for geographical factors, population, the level of urbanization, and Western penetration and employing different model speci cation.
Moreover, I estimate the yearly correlation between the logged-quota density and the density of modernization activities, and that the correlation before the abolition remains stable, but suddenly increases after the abolition.
However, it is possible that the quotas are correlated with other omitted variables, such as political connectedness, whose effects may also have changed after the system's abolition.
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To correct such biases and resolve the potential endogeneity, we employ a fuzzy regression discontinuity (RD) design: in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643), the prefectures with an agricultural tax that exceeded 150,000 stones were classi ed as \important."
Higher quotas were allocated to the \important" prefectures in the early Qing Dynasty (1644-1910). Mid-way through the period, a new rule for classifying regions by importance was adopted, but the quotas remained stable throughout the Qing Dynasty. Thus, we exploit the discontinuity in the expected value of quotas as an instrumental variable to identify the causal effect of quotas. The results still show that the effect of logged-quota density signi cantly increases after the abolition of the civil exam.
This study can help us understand why China failed to undergo an industrial revo-lution and sustained growth, given its economic leadership in the 14th century and evenin the 18th (Allen 2009; Maddison 1998, 2001; Pomeranz 2000). Landes (2006) describestwo opportunities that China missed: to (1) generate a self-sustaining process of techno-logical advancement based on its achievements and (2) to learn from European technologyonce foreigners had entered the Chinese domain.
This paper empirically identi es the effects of the second missed opportunity and supports the extant hypothesis that the civil examination constituted an institutional obstacle to the rise of modern science and industry (Huff 2003; Lin 1995). I provide a counterfactual case to estimate the gap in the capacities of steam engine between Britain and China, which shows that China's capac-ity would have been larger than Britain's during the First Opium War (1839-41) if the civil examination had been abolished before 1813-27. Though the counterfactual case is limited, it provides a sense of the role of the civil exam as the barrier of modernization.
Moreover, it enhances our general understanding of the role played by institutions in economic development, and sheds light on the reasons for the great divergence in technological expertise and per capita income seen around the world in the past centuries. Institutions, and the incentives they create, determine the economic outcomes of a society (North 1990, 1994). The recent literature suggests that good institutions,including secure property rights.
In AD 605, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty (581-618) established the imperial examina-tion system, through which intellectuals were formally selected to become officials (Keay 2009). Although the system was used on a small scale during this and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618-907), it was expanded under the Song Dynasty (960-1276) (Chaffee 1995).
After being interrupted during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1276-1368), the exam-ination system became the primary channel for recruiting government officials during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1910) Dynasties (Ebrey 1999; Elman 2000; Ho 1962). The system was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureau-cracy using a test of educational merit, and created a class of scholar bureaucrats that was independent of family status (Elman 2000; Ho 1962).
The system helped the centragovernment capture and hold the loyalty of local-level elites (Man-Cheong 2004), selected suitable and efficient managerial elites (Elman 2000), and created cultural uniformity and consensus on basic values (Elman 1990, 1991).
After more than 1,200 years of using the exam system, the introduction of Western knowledge systems led to a series of reforms after the First and Second Opium Wars and the decline of the imperial examination system.
Franke (1960) gives a detailed description of this phase of history. After the Siege of the International Legations during the Boxer Uprising in 1900, the Empress Dowager Cixi was forced to reform the traditional examination system.
She abolished the eight-legged essay in 1901, but retained the three-level examination structures.
In late 1903 and early 1904, the Committee on Education submitted a memorandum urging the abolition of the examination system, and they received imperial approval on January 13, 1904. This led to the decisive abolition of the examination system.
On September 2, 1905, The Empress Dowager Cixi endorsed a memorandum ordering the discontinuance of the old examination system at all levels in the following year.The structure and process of the civil examination system remained stable during Qing dynasty. There were three stages of testing:
(1) the biennial licensing examination(Yuankao in Chinese), the lowest level, held in the prefectural capital after primary testing in the county seat;
(2) the triennial qualifying examination in the provincial cap-ital (Xiangshi in Chinese); and
(3) the third level in the capital (academy examination, Huikao in Chinese) with re-examination in the imperial palace (palace examination,Di-anshi in Chinese). Successful candidates received a new title at each level and became automatically eligible to attend the next level of examination.
Specically, the candidates who passed the prefecture-level examination were termed Shengyuan or Xiucai (literati), and those who passed the provincial and national level testing were Juren (recommended man, a provincial graduate), and Jinshi (presented scholar, a graduate of the palace examination), respectively.
The contents of all the examinations were dominated by the Confucian classics { the Four Books and the Five Classics (Elman 2000). The examinations were bound by many regulations and presented within strict frameworks.
Form was even more important than content; candidates were required to write eight-legged Confucian essays (Chang 1955;Elman 2000; Yuchtman 2009).
II.A.2. Return
Each of the degrees or titles carried different privileges, prestige, and income (Chang 1955,1962; Elman 1990, 2000; Glahn 1996). Chang (1962) shows that the gentry received about 24 per cent of the national income, even though they constituted only about 2 per cent of the population.
At the lowest level, the candidates who passed the district examination became members of the lower gentry, who were exempted from corporal punishment and corvee (i.e. forced labor), and had the right to wear a scholar's robes.
This degree and title also provided the gentry with the opportunity to manage local affairs, become secretarial assistants to officials, and teach { three important sources of income for Chinese gentry (Chang 1962). The highest possible achievement was to become a government official, which brought great power and prestige.
For instance, the district magistrate had great authority to carry out court orders, collect taxes, and implement central government policies, all of which provided \the greatest opportunity for the rapid accumulation of wealth" (Chang 1962: 7).
Ni and Van (2006) estimate that circa 1873, officials' corrupt income was 14 to 22 times greater than their regular income, resulting in about 22% of the agricultural output being owned by 0.4% of the population.
Chang (1962) estimates that the average regular and extra income of a government official at that time was about 5,000 Tael silver per year. To qualify for appointment to government office, the candidates needed to pass at least the provincial-level examination.
If they passed the higher-level academy or palace exam-inations, they were usually automatically appointed to a government position. In pursuit of the great power and prestige of an official, candidates began studying as young children and on average passed the district examination at 24. They were likely to continue to study for another ten years before passing the provincial and national examinations.
II.B. Quota System
The dynasties distributed these opportunities to become rich according to provincial and prefectural quotas throughout the country \as an institutional means to con ne and reg-ulate the power of elites" (Elman 2000: 140).
The quota system allowed the government to control the size of the gentry class, which consisted exclusively of candidates who had passed the licensing examinations.
In the late empire, only 1.6 to 1.9 percent of thetotal population had gentry status (Chang 1955; Elman 2000).
Furthermore, by using regional quotas, imperial officials could be recruited from the country. The control of the regional composition of the gentry was inherent in the initial stages of the licensing examination system.
By restricting the prefecture or county quotas, the dynasty could control the number and location of candidates entering the official selection process.
The quotas for the higher-level examinations { Juren and Jinshi { were always allocated at the provincial level during the Qing Dynasty.
There was no standard formula for the regional quota, but the size and importance of the administrative units were the key de-terminants (Chang 1955).
Thus the regions were very unequal in terms of opportunities for individual participants.
Cham elder in Binh Thuan province
The empirical study of this paper covers the 262 prefectures of 18 provinces south of Great Wall { the traditional agricultural China (see Figure 1).
During the Qing period, about 90 percent of the country's total population lived in this region.
Khmer market and Theravada Buddhism Temple in Saigon
To exploit the cross-prefecture variation in the chance of passing the exam, I use the quotas for the licensing examination { the lowest level, which was conducted in the prefectural capitals. This prefecture examination was the threshold for obtaining gentry status.
Candidates who passed the district examination became members of the gentry and earned the accompanying privileges and income.
The prefectural level of examination corresponds to our analysis of rms at the prefecture level.
The quotas for successful candidates in these district examinations were assigned to each administrativeunit, prefecture, and county.
To compute this number, we rst combined the gures for the quotas in all administrative units. The Qing Hui Dian Shi Li(Kun 1991) gives the quotas from the beginning to the end of the nineteenth century.
According to Chang (1955), the district examination quotas were stable after 1724, with the biggest change happening during the Taiping Rebellion, when the quota was increased in order to quell the revolt.
Based on our data, the sum of the quotas in the 262 sample prefectures was 29,808 (up from 24,698 before the rebellion).
Figure 2 depicts the geographical distribution of absolute values of quotas for licensing examinations and quota density (quota per million inhabitants). The average prefectural quota was 113.8 (SD = 75.6), and the average quota density is 135.8
(SD = 141.2). The prefecture with the highest chance of passing the exam is Anxi Zhou in Gansu Province (the quota per million inhabitants is 1704.2), and that with the lowest chance is Haimen Ting in Jiangsu Province (the quota per million inhabitants is 8.7). After its defeats in the First (1839-42) and Second (1856-60) Opium Wars, China began to adopt Western technologies and establish modern enterprises.
Apart from the period of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-95), initiated by Qing government officials to acquire military technology and armaments, this adoption was primarily carried out by private rms that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.
I employ the number of mech-anized industrial rms above a designated size as the proxy for measuring the adoption of Western technology.
Chang (1989) compiled ten series of extant materials on Chinese private enterprises and listed all modern rms with their locations and establishment dates.
All rms in this study meet the following ve criteria: (1) they are organized as companies, (2) they have over silver yuan in capital,(3) they use mechanization, (4) they have over 30 employees, and (5) the value of their output is over 50,000 silver yuan.
Che Linh - most famous Cham in Vietnam
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This gure clearly shows that the rms began in 1848, were negligible before 1878, and started to grow during the height of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-95).
After China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), which marked the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement, the number of newly opened rms suddenly decreased from 18 in 1894 to three in 1895 and six in 1896.
After a period of slow growth (1895-1903), private enterprises sprouted at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China.
For instance, 71 rms opened in 1916, the rst year after the abolition of the imperial civil examinations, and 125 rms were established in 1912, the rst year of the Republic of China.
In addition to establishing modern rms, other activities also related to learning from the West.
For instance, in the late Qing period, more and more educated Chinese left home to study overseas { primarily in Japan, as it was regarded as the most suitable country due to its geographical proximity and cultural similarity. During 1900-11, 90% of the 20,000 overseas Chinese students studied in Japan (Yao 2004).
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5354/aff48b3e7c020b97da856a46e81afa81df3e.pdf
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