This channel is hilarious! Riceman also got the chair-pulling and shampoo pranks, but this 2 took it to a new level. There's a lack of healthy respect and crossing of many social boundaries in stunts like this, but at the same time, it demonstrates the rigidity of modern society where strangers rarely interact with one another in public settings. Benny Hill in real life!
If you ask today’s youth about what they like to do when they’re not camping out in the library studying for midterms or finishing up assignments, they’ll most likely present a scenario that involves them and a group of close friends hanging out at a local shisha lounge, and snapchatting any member of the crew who successfully manages to blow out perfectly-shaped rings of fruit-scented smoke.
According to Manchester Health & Care Commissioning, a ‘shisha’ is a smoking device that is placed vertically on the ground next to the smoker. Tobacco is placed in a compartment within the shisha stand and it is heated beneath pieces of charcoal. The heat from the charcoal pushes the smoke into a water container where it is supposedly filtered.
It then passes into a plastic pipe connected to the stand and is inhaled by the smoker. Although the act of smoking shisha originated from the high-class society of India in the 15th century, it has grown to become a popular hobby within countries in Europe and North America as well. However, contrary to popular belief, shisha is notorious for the negative health effects it invokes within avid users.
Most people are under the impression that since the smoke is filtered through water, it loses many of its toxins, and thus isn’t as harmful as the smoke from regular cigarettes. However, according to the Government of South Australia’s health department, only 5 per cent of the toxic chemicals such as, but not limited to: tar, and fine particles, are filtered out.
Since shisha is considered to be a social activity, people tend to smoke it for longer periods of time without realizing it. Users can easily spend 2-3 hours smoking while socializing. In other words, one hour of consuming shisha is equivalent to smoking around 100 to 200 cigarettes!
In addition to this, consumers are exposed to more smoke from a shisha pipe as compared to a cigarette stick. This is because a larger suction force is required to pull the smoke through the long pipe while cigarette sticks require small puffs or medium-sized drags.
Many shisha lounges are increasingly springing up around cities. Haze Lounge and Tche Tche in Mississauga are one of the many popular spots for youth to smoke shisha that have opened up in the recent years.
Due to its social attractiveness and the misconception that the various fruity flavours and scents eliminate the nicotine from the shisha, youth are increasingly turning towards it as a means of leisure, not realizing the harmful effects it could have on their health.
Pressure to conform to the expectations of their peers of what constitutes popularity has led many youngsters to become addicted to the act of smoking shisha.
If society cannot digest the thought of seeing someone smoking around 10-15 cigarettes a day, then why should they turn a blind eye towards an activity that is equivalent to the consumption of cigarettes in the hundreds? Effort needs to be made in order to raise awareness of its harmful nature which should be directed towards youngsters.
https://themedium.ca/sports/is-shisha-worse-than-smoking-cigarettes/
Roughly 30–35% of fish oil consists of highly unsaturated fatty acids with 5 or 6 double bonds, mainly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), making them very vulnerable to oxidation.
The typical oxidation process involves the formation of hydroperoxides, which decompose partly into very volatile secondary oxidation products belonging to the group of short-chain ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids. The volatile substances often contribute to the fishy off-flavor experienced in oxidized fish oil or omega-3 concentrates.
The best way to characterize the freshness of such an oil is to use the TOTOX value which should not be over 15. In order to prevent the oxidation and prolong the shelf-life of these products, a mixture of antioxidants consisting of a lipophilic antioxidant (i.e. tocopherol), a chelating compound (i.e. EDTA, citric acid, etc.), and a synergistic compound (i.e. Rosemary extract), show better protection properties than just using standard tocopherol (vitamin E) on its own.
Once the oxidation process in a fish oil or omega-3 concentrate has started, it is still possible to correct resulting off-flavors by removing the generated oxidation products. This can be done, for example, with the help of adsorption, deodorization, molecular distillation or supercritical fluid technology.
Omega-3s and other specialty oils - Omega-3 oils and other specialty oils are typically composed of significant amounts of highly unsaturated fatty acids that are extremely prone to oxidation. For this reason, it is recommended to add a combination of natural antioxidants before processing to help protect these fatty acids throughout the refining process.
After processing, a second addition of natural antioxidants is also recommended. Because these oils have relatively low amounts of naturally occurring tocopherols, it is beneficial to combine sage or rosemary with tocopherols. Other antioxidants, such as citric acid, can also be beneficial. While OSI, Rancimat, or PV testing can give some direction to the product developer as to antioxidant choice and shelf-life stability, sensory testing is highly recommended when working with these oils.
The essentiality of LA and ALA is that they are precursors for some of the more important highly unsaturated fatty acids that are AA, DHA, and EPA. Conceivably, the most potent effects of PUFAs are related to their enzymatic conversion to a series of oxygenated derivatives, i.e., eicosanoids that include prostanoids and leukotrienes.
These possess potent biological activity and their homeostatic functions in regulating platelet and endothelial vessel–wall interactions and monocyte and macrophage behavior are relevant to the initiation and progress of atherogenesis (Marcus, 1984; Mahley, 1985).
EPA and DHA compete with AA for prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis at the cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) level to produce eicosanoids of 3-series (prostaglandin E3, thromboxane A3, and leukotriene B5) or 2-series (prostaglandin E2, thromboxane A2, and Leukotriene B4), respectively (Prichard et al., 1995).
Eicosanoids that are derived from AA have opposing effects to those derived from EPA and a dietary imbalance in favor of n-6PUFA may contribute to detrimental effects on cardiovascular health (Harris et al., 2009). Therefore, obtaining preformed EPA and DHA directly from the diet is important for adequate incorporation into cell membranes and uptake in body tissues (Burdge and Calder, 2005).
Epidemiological studies indicate that humans evolved on a diet with a ratio of omega-6:omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids of approximately 1, compared to the modern typical western diet where the ratio has increased to 10–30:1 (Simopoulos, 2006).
This change has been attributed to the increased intake of omega-6 fatty acids coupled with a decreased intake of omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA and DHA. In the western diet, AA is the most abundant 20 carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid available as a substrate for eicosanoid synthesis due to the greater abundance of LA over ALA.
Consequently, the tissue PLs are enriched in AA. Unfortunately, a high omega-6:omega-3 ratio promotes the pathogenesis of many diseases, including CVD, cancer, and inflammatory diseases, whereas increased levels of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (lower omega-6:omega-3), with an optimal ratio of 2–4:1, exert suppressive effects due to eicosanoid function (Simpoulos, 2002).
For CVD prevention, the National Heart Foundation (NHF) of Australia and the American Heart Association (AHA) recommend two to three servings of oily fish a week or 500 mg/day of EPA/DHA for adults (Colquhoun et al., 2008).
However, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) estimate that consuming at least 160 mg/day for males and 90 mg/day for females is adequate, while individuals with documented CHD or with lipid abnormalities are recommended by the AHA to consume 1000 mg/day of EPA/DHA (Colquhoun et al., 2008).
Lipids in natural fish food comprise mainly triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes, and free fatty acids, which are characterized by a high content of highly unsaturated fatty acids (Leaver et al. 2008). Efficient lipid digestion requires emulsifiers in the mixture of food—mainly proteins and phospholipids—as well as from endogenous bile acid and phospholipid secretion in the proximal part of the digestive tract.
The emulsifiers orient themselves on the surface of lipid droplets that form as dietary lipid is released during the physical, chemical and enzymatic degradation of the food. If the emulsifying capacity is deficient, the digestion of released lipids may be hindered (Baeverfjord et al. 2006).
The main source of lipolytic enzymes in fish is the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas (see Section 3.3.1; Kurtovic et al. 2009). Lipase activity differs between fish species as illustrated by the difference between even related species such as Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout (Bogevik et al. 2008). Active fishes such as mackerel (family Scombridae) and scup (family Sparidae) are among the species that have especially high activities (Kurtovic et al. 2009).
Knowledge of characteristics and specificities of fish lipases is far from complete, as summarized in Section 3.3.1. Kurtovic et al. (2009) conclude that freshwater fishes may have mainly co-lipase-dependent pancreatic lipase (PL) whereas marine fishes have bile-acid-dependent carboxyl ester lipase (CEL). PL has higher specificity and digestive efficiency for triglycerides than the CEL. The latter hydrolyses a broader range of lipids including wax esters.
Some studies have reported this lipase to be sn-1,3-specific (Tocher and Sargent 1984; Gjellesvik et al. 1989) which, concomitant with the metabolic advantage of re-esterification of monoacylglycerols within the enterocytes, opens up the possibility that bile-salt-dependent CEL in fish may actually possess sn-1,3-specific hydrolytic activity.
Fish lipases in general show higher affinity for glycerides with long, highly unsaturated fatty acids in contrast to mammalian lipases, which show highest activity towards ester bonds with fatty acids of chain length <20 carbons (Gjellesvik 1991; Gjellesvik et al. 1994).
Also in contrast to mammals, at least some fishes seem to have the ability to hydrolyze wax esters, although at lower rates than triglycerides and phospholipids (Tocher and Sargent 1984; Olsen et al. 2004). Fish hydrolyze phospholipids quite efficiently. However, whether a specific phopholipase plays an important role in lipid digestion in fish is debated (Tocher 2003).
With great variation in lipid sources and lipid level in food organisms it would be expected that fish adapt enzyme level accordingly. A study with Atlantic salmon fed diets with varying proportions of fish oil and wax esters showed an ability to up-regulate both lipase activity and bile salt concentration with higher dietary levels of the less digestible wax esters compared to highly digestible fish oil (Bogevik et al. 2009).
Whether monoglycerols are the main products of lipolytic action in fishes, as in monogastric mammals, is not known. Results of a study of digestive processes in Atlantic salmon, summarized in Fig. 2.3, indicate that lipolysis in this species mainly produces free fatty acids (Krogdahl unpublished). Thus it would be expected from these results that most dietary fatty acids are absorbed as free fatty acids.
However, the enzymes responsible for synthesis of triglycerides from absorbed fatty acids in the enterocytes seem to preferentially use monoglycerides as substrate, rather than glycerol (Oxley et al. 2007), suggesting that monoglyceride absorption may be important for optimal assimilation efficiency of triglycerides.
The further fate of fatty acids in fish is not well understood but presumed to occur as in mammals (Tocher 2003). Thus, fatty acids liberated by lipolysis are picked up by primary micelles which turn into mixed micelles.
Mixed micelles then become capable of assimilating more hydrophobic compounds such as fat-soluble vitamins and cholesterol esters. Mixed micelles purportedly disintegrate when they reach the so-called unstirred water layer of the intestinal mucosa. The mucus/water layer has a pH slightly lower than that of chyme and the difference facilitates the disintegration. The fatty acids are released from the micelles and absorbed (see Section 5.2).
Lipid digestibility has been reported in a great number of studies with cultivated fish species and generally lies in the range of 85–99%. The work has founded the basis for the development of prediction models for dietary lipid digestibility (Hua and Bureau 2009; Sales 2009). However, lipid digestibility varies between species and with developmental stage, feeding rate, water temperature, lipid source and its melting point, and diet composition (Røsjø et al. 2000; Hansen et al. 2008; Sales 2009).
For example, in Atlantic salmon, digestibility of the individual dietary fatty acids decreases with increasing chain length and increases with increasing degree of desaturation (Røsjø et al. 2000). Further work is needed to understand the intricacies of lipid digestion and its regulation in fishes. Such knowledge would most likely lead to more optimal utilization of valuable, limited resources such as fish oil in formulated feeds for farmed fish.
The most abundant natural sources of EPA and DHA are from within aquatic environments (Arts et al., 2001). The low melting points of the highly unsaturated fatty acids are important to the prevention of excessive rigidity in cold aquatic environments (Brett and Müller-Navarra, 1997). Fish oil has long been the most common dietary source of these fatty acids, but more recently the EPA and DHA content of algae oils have become of interest (Howe et al., 2006).
Algae are the primary sources of DHA in the food chain, and can provide a kosher, halal, and vegetarian source of both EPA and DHA (Lane et al., 2014). In the cases of both fish and algae, the specific quantities of these fatty acids can vary dramatically according to the specific species. Table 13.2 shows assessed quantities of EPA and DHA within a variety of species of fish and algae.
4.9.12 Vitamin E - We need this antioxidant to protect us against oxygen free radicals, particularly in lipophilic compartments that none of the water-soluble antioxidants can reach. When a highly unsaturated fatty acid component of membrane phospholipids becomes oxidized by a free radical, it becomes unnaturally kinked, bending right to where a vitamin E molecule sits (if we have enough of it) and gets cured on contact.
Vitamin E should also be there when a polyunsaturated fatty acid in LDL gets attacked by a free radical and is at risk of generating oxidized LDL, a highly atherogenic lipoprotein. It is the only compound that can do that job.
Ten compounds with vitamin E activity are known to occur in nature. The most common ones are alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol, occurring mostly in nuts, oils, and seeds. Four analogous tocotrienols are found in some foods.
Vitamin E from the diet is absorbed in the small intestine with the help of the scavenger receptor B1 (SRARB1; OMIM 601040) and the Niemann-Pick C1 like protein 1 (encoded by NPC1L1; OMIM 608010). It is then packaged by MTP into chylomicrons, which transport its precious nutrient payload to the liver. People with defective MTP cannot get enough vitamin E into their system to protect their lipoproteins and tissue membranes against the damaging effects of oxidant free radicals.
These patients, like everybody else with severe vitamin E deficiency, will develop progressive ataxia if they do not get treatment. The vitamin E deficiency also causes the production of misshapen red blood cells with spur-like protrusions (acanthocytosis). Use of a very large daily oral dose of vitamin E (100–200 IU/kg) will halt progression of the neurological abnormalities, and may even lead in some cases to a modest improvement in the symptoms.
Production of normal red blood cells resumes quickly. Vitamin E injections, which would bypass the malfunctioning absorption mechanism, are rarely used but may restore plasma vitamin E concentration more effectively than oral intake.
Chylomicron retention disease (CMRD; OMIM 246700) is another rare genetic condition that disrupts vitamin E absorption and has similar consequences and guidelines for vitamin E therapy [279].
Another rare condition that prevents the absorption of vitamin E is abetalipoproteinemia (ABL; OMIM 200100) in which chylomicrons cannot be formed because of defective synthesis of their structural apolipoprotein. Individuals with abetalipoproteinemia develop very severe progressive neurodegenerative disease that is preventable with the use of high-dosed vitamin E.
Much of the vitamin E from chylomicrons eventually reaches the liver. There they get packaged into newly forming very-low-density proteins (VLDL), many of which eventually turn into LDL. The key packaging agent is alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (TTPA; OMIM 600415). TTPA is highly selective, greatly preferring the natural RRR-alpha-tocopherol form over all others.
Individuals lacking functional TTPA develop progressive ataxia without effective treatment. Retinitis pigmentosa is another condition in some patients. High-dose vitamin E use may halt progression in some cases.
Lotus flower
A 62-year-old Japanese man with two copies of a loss-of-function TTPA variant had blunted reflexes, poor orientation in space (proprioception), and an unsteady gait (ataxia). After 7 months of treatment with 800 mg vitamin E, Romberg sign (see box) became negative and his orientation in space was slightly better [280]. Heterozygotes for a TTPA variant were found to have moderately reduced (<25%) vitamin E concentration in blood without developing noticeable neurological symptoms.
Finally, we have to consider what happens to vitamin E once it gets into a cell. If new vitamin E kept coming in, it would get quite crowded in there after a while. Breakdown of vitamin E into inactive, water-soluble metabolites takes care of that little problem. These vitamin E metabolites can readily leave the cell and are excreted in urine and feces.
Omega-oxidation by cytochrome P450 4F2 (CYP4F2; OMIM 604426) is the main mechanism of vitamin E catabolism [281], but omega-1 and omega-2 oxidation by unknown enzymes also play a role. Now, one might ask why we should bother with such arcane minutiae.
An important reason is that common CYP4F2 variants make the encoded enzyme more or less active. This means that the speed of vitamin E degradation differs, which ultimately influences the concentration of active vitamin E in blood and tissues.
Replacement of tryptophan in position 12 of the mature CYP4F2 protein by glycine (Trp12Gly; rs3093105) increases the activity of the variant enzyme more than twofold. Another variant, V433M (rs2108622) reduces enzyme activity by almost a half.
The high-activity variant Trp12Gly is about twice as common in people with African ancestry than in those with Caucasian ancestry (21% vs. 11%); for the low-activity variant it is the other way around (9% vs. 17%). This means that, based on these variants alone, at the same intake levels we have to expect higher vitamin E tissue concentrations associated with Caucasian ancestry than with African ancestry.
Lotus seeds
Biological activities of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs : PUFAs active in the regulation of gene expression and lipid metabolism are highly unsaturated fatty acids of 20 and 22 carbons of both the n-3 and the n-6 series, such as arachidonic acid (20:4, n-6), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6, n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5, n-3).
These fatty acids can be produced endogenously from linoleic acid (18:2, n-6), which is the precursor of arachidonic acid, and linolenic acid (18:3, n-3), which is the precursor of EPA and DHA, through the action of delta-5 and delta-6 desaturases. Linolenic acid is present predominantly in flaxseed, soybean and canola oils, and in English walnuts. Linoleic acid is found in most vegetable oils (such as corn oil and sunflower oil) and most nuts.
However, only small amounts of linoleic and linolenic acids undergo delta-desaturation in the body. Therefore, foods rich in fatty acids that are the products of delta-desaturases, that bypass the regulated and required steps of further desaturation and elongation, are much more effective suppressors of hepatic lipogenesis and inducers of fatty acid oxidation than are foods rich in linoleic acid or linolenic acid, the substrates of delta-desaturases.
This is the case of fish oils, which are rich in long-chain highly polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 series (DHA and EPA).
In other aspects, PUFAs of the n-3 and the n-6 series appear to have different biological activities. For instance, n-6 PUFAs have a greater hypo-cholesterolemic effect than n-3 PUFAs,92 while n-3 PUFAs, due to the particular eicosanoids to which they give rise, appear to have beneficial effects on vascular endothelial function that are not displayed by the n-6 PUFAs, from which a different set of eicosanoids is produced (reviewed in reference 93).
Pinball machine
Together with their marked hypotriglycerydemic effect, this may explain the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease associated with fish and fish oil consumption that has been repeatedly observed in human epidemiologic studies and clinical intervention trials (reviewed in references 92 and 94).
PUFAs of the n-6 and n-3 series also differ in their effects on adipogenesis. Linoleic acid and arachidonic acid (both n-6 PUFAs) may be particularly pro-adipogenic, because they serve as precursors in pre-adipocytes of prostacyclins which, in a paracrine/autocrine fashion, through activation of a specific cell surface receptor, trigger early adipogenic events in these cells (reviewed in reference 95).
Interestingly, n-3 PUFAs inhibit the above process, and in this sense can be considered as anti-adipogenic.95 It has been suggested that a high dietary n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA ratio during early life and infancy may favor increased adipocyte numbers and future obesity, and it is remarkable that this ratio has continuously and markedly increased in human breast milk over recent decades.
U of H swimming pool
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Studies in rodents have consistently reported that intake of n-3 PUFAs reduces adipose mass, preferentially visceral fat, in general without affecting body weight (see references in reference 87). Some studies in humans also reported an effect of dietary fish oil consumption increasing whole-body lipid oxidation and decreasing total body fat content,96 and specifically abdominal fat content.
U of H dormitory
Most human studies, however, have so far examined the effect of PUFA intake on end-points related to cardiovascular health and insulin sensitivity, rather than to body weight and body fat control. There is a paucity of human studies specifically designed to ascertain whether the intake of PUFAs (or PUFA-rich foods such as fish oils and nuts) can assist in weight loss and/or in weight maintenance after weight loss in the long-term.
Quartz sand
Fish and shellfish have long been consumed by some maritime tribes for their protein source. However, a finding that the highly unsaturated fatty acids in marine oils have been related to prevention of heart disease is noteworthy in modern Western societies conscious of their health, and the consumption of seafood is increasing significantly. (See FISH OILS | Dietary Importance; SHELLFISH | Commercially Important Crustacea; SHELLFISH | Commercially Important Molluscs.)
The majority of fish and shellfish are safe as food, but there are some species that are naturally toxic or poisonous and may cause illness or even death if they are consumed. This article reviews raw-fish dishes of Japan (e.g., Fugu), nature and risks from ciguatoxins, caviar and its production, and eels and their uses.
As in the case of cottonseed oil, no necessity exists in the case of groundnut hydrogenation to bring down the content of any highly unsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic to around 2% to attain stability. We are therefore concerned from the outset primarily with texture, although obviously as the proportion of remaining linoleic acid falls, a greater resistance to atmospheric oxidation will arise. Iso- or trans-Suppressive Hydrogenation (see same title section also in Chapter 2)
A fresh catalyst at about 0.05% of nickel/oil with hardening controlled at a 140°C maximum and at a 2–3 atm pressure should succeed in dropping the IV to 70–72 in about three hours, corresponding with a fall in nD60 from 1.4560 to 1.4540. A slip melting point of c. 33°C with an SFI 20/30 of 16.7/5.6 (% SFC at 20/30°C = 18/5) results. If hydrogenation continues to 37°C mp, the texture changes approximately to an SFI 20/30 of 19.4/9.3 (% SFC at 20/30°C = 21.5/8.5).
By the time an IV of 46 is attained, the slip mp has risen to c. 46°C and the SFI 20/30 of 65/55.5 (%SFC at 20/30°C = 82/61.5) is still somewhat flatter than when hardening at a higher temperature such as 180–200 °C. Any active general-purpose catalyst will serve here. Engelhard Nysosel 22 and Nysosel 325; Unichema 9900, 9906, and 9910; Süd-Chemie G53, G53K, KE-NF20, and KE-KTR; Hoecat 882 OF; and Calsicat E472 D should all perform well and permit some reuse. Worth noting is that Unichema 9920 and Süd-Chemie G70 have good low-temperature (140°C) activity and selectivity. Vegetable ghee (vanaspati).
Natural (cow) ghee typically has a slip melting point of about 37°C, although some varieties melt as high as 41°C. The texture quoted (Patterson, 1974) as typical for 37°C mp is given in Table 8.13. As one can see, this texture (Table 8.13) is not far removed from that of the groundnut oil hardened at 140°C to 37°C, and on the figures quoted, had that hydrogenation continued a little further to 38°C mp at most, an even closer fit at 20°C and 30°C could be attained.
This procedure fits with a technique of producing the desired result from a single hydrogenation of one vegetable oil or a mixture of vegetable oils. At the same time, one must recognize that many manufacturers find it economical to blend some components of higher melting point with more lightly hydrogenated vegetable oil, or even unhydrogenated oil. The medium and higher melting components allow the repeated use of the same catalyst so that the overall expenditure of nickel is modest.
A hardened oil of a medium melting point may have presented a substantial amount of trans isomers arising from the conditions of hardening, including the use of a partly-exhausted catalyst. The melting point and solids content at 20°C will then depend on these trans isomers, and the SFI or SFC curve may be relatively steep.
Liquid-oil components will obviously lower the solid component at 20°C and soften the blend, while a small amount of high-melting component will lift the solid component at 30°C and 35°C, thus establishing a flat melting curve.
Palm oil melts at 35–39°C; therefore, when it is a major (c. 50%) component in the production of vanaspati, the scope for maneuvering in hydrogenation becomes limited; soybean oil, on the other hand, with an IV of 135 and c. 8% of linolenic acid present, not only allows but also requires more hydrogenation.
Cottonseed oil and groundnut oil, traditionally popular for vanaspati production in Asia and Africa, are intermediate in this respect. In some countries, local regulations require about 5% of sesame oil to be included in the vanaspati. The sesamol present thereafter gives a positive reaction in the Baudouin color test, and enables the vanaspati to be distinguished from natural ghee in which it would be a profitable adulterant.
Other regulations may control the use of artificial coloring and flavoring, and limit the production of vegetable ghee to below a fixed maximal melting point (Gander, 1976; Haighton, 1916; Patterson, 1974; Swem, 1964). Normal Hydrogenation (also see same title in Chapter 2)
The remarks in the “Normal Hydrogenation” section of Chapter 2 apply very directly to groundnut oil, where the chances of unwanted side reactions such as polymerization during hydrogenation do not exist. Hence, having introduced hydrogen at 140–160°C, the control in this class of hardening is usually 180°C, with 200°C as a possible maximum.
Common practice is to employ a generous dose of partly-exhausted normal catalyst—say, about 0.4% of nickel/oil—depending naturally on how much activity remains in the catalyst and how desirable is completing the hardening within three hours. Alternatively, a fresh catalyst of 0.05% of nickel/oil would probably suffice. A pressure of 3 atm is normal.
When obtaining a fairly high SFC at 20°C when using a normal catalyst is desirable, a lower pressure of 1 atm and extended gassing time are likely to be necessary. When a high SFC at 20°C and a minimal gassing time are sought, a sulfur-promoted catalyst could be used and the pressure lifted to 5 atm or higher.
The latter approach amounts to moving from what is here called “normal hydrogenation” toward iso- or trans-promoting hydrogenation (see the “Iso- or trans-Promoting Hydrogenation” section below).
The general-purpose catalysts suitable for hardening groundnut oil are: Hoecat 882 OF, Calsicat E472, Süd-Chemie F53 and KE-NF2, Unichema 9910, and Engelhard N325. Bearing in mind that the initial IV may easily lie between 87 and 103, regard the following as no more than typical when starting from an oil of 91 IV corresponding with an nD60 of 1.4560.
As hydrogenation progresses into the region of 40°C mp and beyond, differences in IV or RI associated with a particular slip melting point will naturally grow much less in spite of the original groundnut oils having been 15 or 20 units of IV apart.
This, as with other oils, is simply due to the fact that fewer double bonds then remain, so that whether they are of a cis or trans configuration is progressively less important than the presence of increasing amounts of saturates (see Table 8.14).
Iso- or trans-Promoting Hydrogenation (see same section title in Chapter 2). The conditions described in the “Normal Hydrogenation” section in this chapter using a partly-exhausted or “spent” catalyst at 180°C are themselves substantially trans-promoting.
If this tendency is to be pursued to the maximal extent, probably affording some advantage will be to use a specially sulfur-poisoned catalyst at about 0.2% of nickel/oil concentration in the first batches, and allow this to double itself as the same catalyst is used repeatedly.
Also no reason exists why re-sulfuring should not be done at intervals as described in detail in the “Iso- or trans-Promoting Hydrogenation” section in Chapter 2. The practical consequence of this approach is to obtain the maximal difference between solids contents at 20°C and 30°C for any one item while following the IV or RI figures quoted in Table 8.14 (i)–(vii).
Suitable catalysts would be Engelhard Nysel Sp-7 and Nysel Sp-10, Süd-Chemie G111, and Unichema 9908 working at up to a 5-atm pressure.
High-Melting and Fully-Saturated Hardened Oil. For acceptable gassing times, a dose of about 0.1% of nickel/oil of fresh catalyst is used; the temperature is controlled at the usual 180°C, and the pressure at 3 atm, although an increase of the latter to 5 atm will probably secure a useful shorteningof cycle time, especially for a 48°C mp and above.
Hardening to an nD60 of 1.4514 is the equivalent of c. a 56 IV and 43°C mp, for which an SFI 20 of 59 (SFC at 20°C = 74) is the likely minimum. Continued hardening to an nD60 of 1.4505 (50 IV) gives a 46°C mp and an SFI 20 of 65 (SFC at 20°C c. 88). At an nD60 of 1.4486, the IV has fallen to around 18, and the mp has risen to 56°C.
The melting curve is now very flat with an SFI of 75 (SFC at 20°C = 95). Finally, at around 2 IV, the fully hardened groundnut oil of 62°C mp results. Suitable catalysts are Süd-Chemie G53 and KE-NF2, Engelhard Nysosel 325, Hoecat 882 OF, Unichema 9910, and Calsicat E472 D.
Active Materials With Antioxidant Properties. Together with microbial spoilage, oxidation processes are the most common form of food deterioration. In particular, foods with high lipid content, and especially those with highly unsaturated fatty acids, are susceptible to deterioration by this mechanism.
The consequences of food oxidation include the development of undesirable odors and flavors, alteration of color and texture, and reduction of nutritional value when some vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids are degraded (Kanner and Rosenthal, 1992).
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To control the oxidation of packaged foods, it is essential to reduce or even better eliminate the presence of oxygen, as well as highly reactive oxidizing species (ROS) such as superoxide free radicals, hydroxyl, singlet oxygen, etc. which are spontaneously generated by different mechanisms in the package headspace and that are involved in oxidation reactions of lipids and other food components.
Vacuum or modified atmosphere packaging, together with the use of packages with the appropriate gas and light barrier characteristics, or the direct addition to food of antioxidant substances are the solutions commonly used by industry.
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An alternative option that can provide good results is the use of active antioxidant packaging. In this technology, agents capable of scavenging oxygen or ROS present in the headspace are incorporated in the packaging material.
Their mechanism of action includes their releasing to the food in a controlled manner with adequate kinetics, and with the advantage that such release would result in an accumulation of the agent at the food surface, which is normally the most affected by oxidation (Gomez-Estaca et al., 2014) or by scavenging ROS generated in the headspace (Lopez-de-Dicastillo et al., 2012b).
Granda-Restrepo et al. (2009b,a) have studied the development of active packaging with LDPE//EVOH//HDPE films obtained by coextrusion and the incorporation of a-tocopherol and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) for both the protection of polyolefin degradation during processing and the reduction of riboflavin degradation by migration of a-tocopherol to milk.
The Miniature Schnauzer is a breed of small dog of the Schnauzer type that originated in Germany in the mid-to-late 19th century
The use of EVOH as a base material for the development of active antioxidant materials has been extensively studied by Lopez-de-Dicastillo et al. (2010a,b, 2011, 2012a,b). In these studies, natural substances such as the flavonoids quercetin and catechin and other polyphenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity, have been used as active agents incorporated in EVOH 44 and 29 mol% films prepared with different manufacturing techniques.
The release kinetics of antioxidants in model media and antioxidant activity in fatty foods such as fried peanuts or sunflower oil were monitored. According to the results, these EVOH films could be used to limit food oxidation.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/highly-unsaturated-fatty-acids
Rubus arcticus, the Arctic bramble or Arctic raspberry, is a species of slow-growing bramble belonging to the rose family, found in arctic and alpine regions in the Northern Hemisphere. Its dark red fruit is considered a delicacy.
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These wonderful creatures are only found in the lowland tropical forests on the island of Madagascar. Unlike pest roaches, they don't have wings. Males are protective of their territory and will sit guarding a rock for months leaving to get food and water quickly before returning to prevent other males from sitting on the claimed rock! They softly 'hiss' when you hold and pet them, some people liken it to a cat purring.
https://www.rainbowmealworms.net/madagascar-hissing-cockroaches/
Today, it costs $10,000 to put a pound of payload in Earth orbit. NASA's goal is to reduce the cost of getting to space to hundreds of dollars per pound within 25 years and tens of dollars per pound within 40 years.
Ideonella sakaiensis is a bacterium from the genus Ideonella and family Comamonadaceae capable of breaking down and consuming the plastic poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) as a sole carbon and energy source.
The most common component of sand is silicon dioxide in the form of quartz. The Earth's landmasses are made up of rocks and minerals, including quartz, feldspar and mica. Weathering processes — such as wind, rain and freezing/thawing cycles — break down these rocks and minerals into smaller grains.
The amount of HLW worldwide is currently increasing by about 12,000 metric tons every year. A 1000-megawatt nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year. In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 tons of nuclear HLW were stored.
Ideonella sakaiensis, turns out, is far from the only organism that can use plastic waste as fuel. "Bacteria probably do just evolve to eat things all around them," says genetic engineer Johnson.
The Nicobar Islands are an archipelagic island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean. They are located in Southeast Asia, 150 km north of Aceh on Sumatra, and separated from Thailand to the east by the Andaman Sea. Located 1,300 km southeast of the Indian subcontinent, across the Bay of Bengal, they form part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. UNESCO has declared the Great Nicobar Island as one of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
Shaving in Judaism. Judaism prohibits shaving with a razor on the basis of a rabbinic interpretation of Leviticus 19:27, which states, "You shall not round off the side-growth on your head, or destroy the side-growth of your beard." The Mishnah interprets this as a prohibition on using a razor on the beard.
There is no universally accepted definition for the term “sand”, thus the terms “normal” or “regular” mean nothing. It is generally accepted, however, that sand is a naturally-occurring material, a by-product of the weathering (via wind, water (all phases are possible but typically liquid), or friction) of other rocks and/or minerals.
It is typically “fine-grained”, but there are coarse grained sands as well, and is typically composed largely of silicon dioxide - or quartz. It can be composed of many other rocks and minerals though.
The appearance of sand, its color and reflectivity, will be primarily dependent on the size of the sand particles, the exact elemental composition of particles (which can have infinite combinations of impurities - mostly other kinds of rocks and minerals), the shape of the individual grains, the surface irregularity of the individual grains, and the even the characteristics of the available light at any given time.
The black sand beaches of Hawaii, for example, are produced from the weathering of lava. The reddish sands of the Southwest U.S. are tinted by iron oxides (rust), thus the reddish hue. The sands of the U.S.’s famous “painted desert” can be white, tan, black, yellow, purple, green, blue, and all shades in between. White sands are typically purer forms of silicon dioxide - quartz - which in its crystalline form is clear, and in its metamorphosed form (quartzite) is white.
Sand truly does come in a variety of colours. Sand is first a foremost a grain size category. Sand is smaller than gravel and coarser than silt.
White sand is simply a collection of grains of a white mineral. Silica or quartz is just one of the most common of these. Siesta Beach in the Florida Keys is an example.
Coral and Shell fragments can make up splendid white sand beaches. These are typical calcite or aragonite, forms of calcium carbonate or limestone in its rock form. The gal is inspecting a carbonate beach in Cuba.
Lotus seeds
Gypsum is another mineral that can produce white sand grains. The White Sands National Monument has many great examples of these.
All white sands are exceptionally pure. Even a small fraction of a percent of iron can stain a beach yellowish or red. Any coloured mineral grain will do the same even when the amount is tiny. 'Normal or regular' sand is most commonly a quartz rich mixture of minerals. The purity required to get a truly white sand deposit requires relatively rare geological conditions.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-white-sand-Is-it-a-silica-sand-or-normal-sand-or-regular-sand
A farmer carries his 6-month-old infant on his back while he works. A young woman checks her beehives. Grandparents prepare the harvest for market.
These images are part of a photo exhibit at the Minnesota Museum of American Art in downtown St. Paul. The exhibit, "Seeds of Change," focuses on the creation of a Hmong collective farm and illustrates how the project is allowing farmers to plan — and plant — for the future.
Local filmmaker and photographer Mike Hazard, who describes himself as "a city slicker urban guy from the get-go," has been documenting the Hmong American Farmers Association, or HAFA, since it acquired a 155-acre plot of land along the Vermillion River in 2014. He said his frequent trips to the farm, and the relationships he's developed with the families, have changed his view of the food he eats.
"When I go home and I look at dinner, and I serve it, and I think 'these are Chao's Brussel sprouts,' 'this is Judy's Hmong cucumber' ... to me it adds a profound level of resonance to the experience of those beautiful foods and flowers," he said.
The exhibition, with its fields of flowers, blue skies and smiling faces, is infused with the optimism and pride of the farmers. Many small-scale farmers rent their land. Because they don't know whether their lease will be renewed, they are restricted to growing only those things they can harvest that same year.
Beekeeper and HAFA organizer Yao Yang said their farm was bought by an angel investor; the farmers will work the land and save up money over 10 years to buy it outright. They're willing to make improvements, knowing that the investments will pay off for years to come.
"They can actually plan ahead — they can plant perennials now. Many of our farmers, the first year, planted asparagus in the fall — planted raspberries, planted strawberries," she said. "The livelihood of the farmers market is going to change a lot, with our Hmong farmers especially."
At first, the former corn and soybean field proved challenging.
"We needed to add more lime to it, we needed to add more compost, we needed to get irrigation on the farm and we needed to build a deer fence," Yang said.
The farm is now home to more than a hundred varieties of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Looking at the pictures on the museum wall, Yang was pleased.
"It really captures the story, the narrative of our Hmong farmers," she said. "Not just our Hmong farmers, but the story of Minnesota, I think. Because we have such a rich culture and agriculture here with how committed we are to really supporting our local farmers."
https://www.mprnews.org/story/2016/05/13/seeds-of-change-hmong-art-exhibit
Toyota might not be planning to invest in a mainstream electric vehicle for the U.S. anytime soon, but now, globally, it has this oddity: the i-Road.
As we caught last month in this demonstration at the Paris Auto Show, the i-Road is driven at the front wheels by twin 2-kW electric motors, and steered at the rear wheels, as the articulating front end effectively allows the i-Road to lean into corners, as a motorcycle would, to maintain stability and composure.
The leaning isn’t done by the driver; it’s automatic—determined by motor-controller, steering, and gyro inputs, and actuated by a separate motor. It stays quite upright at low speeds; but as soon as the driver speeds up and then rounds a corner, the i-Road leans at more of an angle.
The whole arrangement has been likened to a skier’s legs, which is part of what this video demonstrates, showcasing the so-called Active Lean Performance.
Technically, the i-Road fits two, but only if you plan to get really close, motorcycle-style. I sat in the i-Road and found that I fit just fine (I’m well over six feet tall), but I cringed wondering how I might fare in congested lane-changes with such questionable rearward visibility. In exotic sports cars, you also get severely compromised visibility, but you hardly need to worry about it when you’re passing everyone; here it’s quite the opposite.
The i-Road doesn’t have much of a suspension, either; a special articulating seat design takes care of that, supposedly. A safety system limits the steering angle as you reach the maximum lean at your particular speed and, Toyota says, the system changes its parameters to maintain stability on slopes and over uneven surfaces.
But in all fairness, the speed isn’t going to be very high; in Europe, top speed is limited to 28 mph. Driving range is about 30 miles, from the 5.5-kWh lithium-ion battery. But the real forte of this little car—or motorcycle, as we’re really not sure what to call it—is its maneuverability and parking ease. It could easily split lanes, and its turning radius is less than ten feet.
So far, the i-Road has been made in very limited numbers—for a fleet test in Japan earlier this year, and now for car-sharing in Grenoble, France. It’s highly unlikely to come to the U.S., where it would likely be classified as a motorcycle; nevertheless we’re curious to see how it might work in some of the most densely populated American cities.
https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1095168_toyota-i-road-electric-city-car-heres-how-it-leans
There are around 132 different banana species and many distant banana areas such as the Indonesia, Malaysia or Asia. Containing an ingredient “tryptophan” they make us feel content and relaxed. Bananas have been a core part of our diet for many years and most people eat bananas for breakfast. But what does it mean to dream of bananas? This dream also indicates sexual pleasure from either a new male or female partner in your life.
If you dream of a banana in conjunction with any other fruit, then this can signify that you are experiencing somewhat a lack of attention in a love affair. Due to the banana shape, this dream is often associated with the penis and male influence.
The other important element when interpreting this type of dream is the color of this particular fruit, which in most cases is yellow or green. For the banana to be yellow signifies that the dream is associated with contentment and happiness. Green bananas indicate that new times, enjoyment, and possibly a new job is appearing on the horizon.
General dream interpretation of a banana: A dream involving a single banana is likely to be interpreted sexually due to the shape. This indicates that you are thinking about a sexual encounter. If you are a woman and you have this dream, it is time to look at your nature towards others. It could show that you are overly affectionate or that you are not affectionate enough.
To eat bananas in your dream often symbolizes a new venture in business affairs. Bananas in decay represent a disagreement in business. The dream is often associated with non-productive behavior. If you dream that you are eating a banana, this is associated with working hard but not reaching a goal. If you do not like eating the banana, it is a sign that you will not enjoy the process required for you to reach that goal.
The knowledge that we possess comes to us by way of perception through the organs of sense, in this case, taste. If you have never given much thought to your senses, you have naturally assumed that you have direct knowledge of all the material things that you perceive about yourself. It has never occurred to you that there are intervening physical agencies you ought to take into account.
When you look at the banana, you instinctively feel there is nothing interposed between it and your mind that is conscious of it. Eating bananas are connected with your unconscious mind. This predicts an even more disturbing outcome, that you seem to never stop and you should take time to relax.
As a matter of fact, your sense’s impression of the banana must filter through a great number of intervening physical agencies before you can become conscious of it. If you dream of banana cake or banana custard, then this suggests that direct perception of an outside reality is impossible, and other people's feelings will come to light.
Before you can become aware of others’ feelings, there must first arise in your mind a chain of countless distinct physical events. The main message here is if you dream of a banana, you may face a difficult decision in connection with relationships in the near future.
What is a dream interpretation of a banana? Fruit in dreams symbolizes happiness. When you dream of a banana, it symbolizes the love and happiness that a banana is also sexual maybe you have a “feeling” of passion in life. The shape of the banana is associated with the penis, according to Sigmund Freud - and the influence that males have in your life.
And that is why, when a man gives a woman a banana in a dream, it symbolizes that he wants to have sexual intercourse with her. If you are a man and you dream that a woman is giving you a banana, it represents that she has rejected your suggestion of sexual intercourse. What does it mean to dream about eating a banana? I believe that eating bananas in dreams is a positive experience. Peeling back and eating this fruit in real life gives us energy and nutrition. Therefore, in dreams, the banana can represent an increased positive perception.
Interestingly, the banana plant is not a tree but considered to be a herb. This is important because when eating a banana there is a spiritual connection. It has been long described the banana is the fruit of a wise man, therefore eating but honoring the dream can indicate gaining the knowledge required to progress in life.
What is the spiritual meaning of dreaming of a banana? Generally, when you dream about a banana, it is a sign that, you are have encountered “sexual” frustration in your life. There are people who are about to enter your life, and such a dream means a disturbance in life.
This might be the reason why you are lacking joy or happiness. The banana dream could also denote that you feel removed from your life. It might indicate a person that you co-habit with and you are not getting your sexual urges filled. You will only be happy and joyful when this person leaves your life.
What does it mean to dream about a rotten banana? A rotten banana is a symbol of negativity, and there is an indication that, you are going to get involved in a job obligation that will be challenging for you. After having such a dream, prepare for a difficult time with your boss, which will take a lot of your time and energy. You will need to give it your everything so that it comes out perfect - you might just get a pay rise or a promotion.
What does it mean to dream about eating a banana (for females)? If you are a female and you dream about eating a banana, it is an indication that you have some feelings for a person of the opposite sex. There is a possibility that you are seeking attention from someone whom you are having feelings for and yet they seem not to notice it.
After such a dream, you will need to think about what you want from life and do anything humanly possible to succeed - including approaching a person you have had issues with. This dream can denote that you wish to express yourself to others.
Let them know how you feel and the emotions you have towards them. You might be shocked even them; they are having the same feelings and hiding them from you because they fear how you will react.
What does it mean to dream of peeling a banana? When you dream that you are peeling a banana, it is an indication that, you are encountering strong masculine energy. A male could be “acting tough” and those who see you in real life get the impression that, you are strong and you don’t need help from other people.
Irrespective of your gender, people see you as the tough one, the bouncer, the strong and mighty. If you are female, it will be good to make sure that, once in a while, you display your feminine side so that you gain emotional support from the opposite sex.
Don’t worry about the hurt you may encounter in the process because, at the end of the day, you will have at least experienced that other side of you.
What does it mean to dream of a bunch of bananas? A dream where you see a bunch of bananas is an indicator that, you are about to experience a romantic relationship from a spiritual perspective.
So lucky you! Your soul mate is will come into your life so take them with both hands and cherish them. If you are currently single, get ready for a serious intimate relationship which is coming your way.
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In dream lore, a bunch of bananas indicates new people and relationships. If you are already in a steady relationship, then it means more peace and happiness is about to be added to it with every problem getting a solution. Some of this dream lore stuff is quite old-fashioned. My take is that a bunch of bananas indicates many possibilities in life.
What does it mean to dream about green bananas? Many bananas arrive in our supermarkets green, in my view, this dream is about patience and waiting for the banana to become ripe. Green bananas in dreams also indicate balance. In dream lore, you are going to benefit from interactions with people if you had a dream where you could see green bananas.
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This means you will gain valuable advice from someone about a project which might just turn out to be a blessing to your life. The dream is a sign that you are entering a prosperous time in life where you will be blessed with finances and investments.
What does it mean to dream about selling bananas? Trade is displayed in strange ways in our dreams. Selling bananas denotes that, you are going to be involved in some worthless business which will take a money and time - yet there will be nothing to show for it at the end of the day.
If you are employed, there is a chance that you will be assigned a challenging task which won’t add any value to you either promotion wise or money wise. This is obviously the dream lore interpretation but in my view selling bananas can suggest a new business opportunity!
What does it mean to dream of someone eating a banana? Seeing someone eating a banana in your dream is a sign that, you will attract someone close to you. If this person is unknown person, then it denotes that, you have a desire to be loved and fall in love with a soul mate. In dream lore, seeing a person eating a banana denotes their is a possibility that you have been without a romantic relationship and you think now is the time to get one and settle down.
What does a dream about carrying bananas mean? Carrying bananas is an indicator that, you or someone close is going to have a sexual affair. There is a possibility that you are going to have a romantic relationship in the near future which will be fulfilling and rewarding at the same time as it will make you feel alive and excited due to the pleasure it gives you. On the other hand, this dream could imply that you are going to be a recipient of unexpected gift which will be delightful.
What does a dream about buying bananas mean? If you have a dream where you see yourself buying bananas, it suggests that you will need to be extra careful in the coming days. In ancient dream books, this means that every step you take should be done cautiously to avoid falling prey to problems.
To buy bananas in a market indicates that you should make sure that you are careful with those who surround you. Maybe not all of them are genuine friends! Are their people seeking your downfall? This is a dream which should be a warning to you about the dangers surrounding you and the need for taking precautions.
What does it mean to dream about unripe bananas? If you eat or handle unripe bananas, then this is a warning that you need to be careful when interacting with other people. When you deal with people who have sexual interests in you, you will need to be careful. You can do so by making sure that, you don’t compromise and get involved as it might have negative consequences. Your current relationship is not good enough for you to have sexual encounters.
What does it mean to dream about looking at bananas? A dream where you are gazing at bananas on display for sale without having to purchase them is an indicator that, you are going to experience meeting a goal in life. Looking at bananas can indicate the perception is likely to change.
The banana as we have already concluded is related to our sexual pleasures, therefore perhaps you are looking at a new relationship? The fact that you are gazing at bananas in a dream means you are contemplating moving forward in your love life.
What does it mean to dream about bananas growing on a plant? As I have already mentioned a banana is grown on a herb rather than a tree. If you observe a banana growing a banana plant in your dream in older dream books this is a negative sign which denotes that, you are going to become drained, exhausted, and tired in the near future.
The psychological and physical state would be due to an involvement you had with someone whom you find very unattractive and not appealing at all. After such an encounter you might feel regrets as to why you need to associate with the person in the first place.
It will be a waste of time and will leave you feeling disappointed and tired but seeing the bananas growing in a dream psychology perspective indicates happiness and contentment. Feelings that you may have encountered during a dream of bananas: Happy. Grateful. Hungry. Content. Grasping. Loving. Funny. Jolly. Groovy.
https://www.auntyflo.com/dream-dictionary/banana
“In 1600 the Wampanoag probably were as many as 12,000 with 40 villages divided roughly between 8,000 on the mainland and another 4,000 on the off-shore islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket.
The three epidemics which swept across New England and the Canadian Maritimes between 1614 and 1620 were especially devastating to the Wampanoag and neighboring Massachuset with mortality in many mainland villages (i.e. Patuxet) reaching 100%.
When the Pilgrims landed in 1620, fewer than 2,000 mainland Wampanoag had survived. The island Wampanoag were protected somewhat by their relative isolation and still had 3,000.
At least 10 mainland villages had been abandoned after the epidemics, because there was no one left. After English settlement of Massachusetts, epidemics continued to reduce the mainland Wampanoag until there were only 1,000 by 1675. Only 400 survived King Philip’s War.
Still concentrated in Barnstable, Plymouth, and Bristol counties of southeastern Massachusetts, the Wampanoag have endured and grown slowly to their current membership of 3,000.
The island communities of Wampanoag on Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket maintained a population near 700 until a fever in 1763 killed two-thirds of the Nantucket. It never recovered, and the last Nantucket died in 1855. The community Martha’s Vineyard has sustained itself by adding native peoples from the mainland and intermarriage, but by 1807 only 40 were full-bloods.
Massachusetts divided the tribal lands in 1842 and ended tribal status in 1870, but the Wampanoag reorganized as the Wampanoag Nation in 1928. There are currently five organized bands: Assonet, Gay Head, Herring Pond, Mashpee, and Namasket.
All have petitioned for federal and state recognition, but only Gay Head (600 members but without a reservation) has been successful (1987). The Mashpee (2,200 members) were turned down by the federal courts in 1978.
Like other Algonquin in southern New England, the Wampanoag were a horticultural people who supplemented their agriculture with hunting and fishing.
Villages were concentrated near the coast during the summer to take advantage of the fishing and seafood, but after the harvest, the Wampanoag moved inland and separated into winter hunting camps of extended families. Since New England was heavily populated before 1600, these hunting territories were usually defined to avoid conflict.
Ownership passed from father to son, but it was fairly easy to obtain permission to hunt in someone else’s lands. The Wampanoag were organized as a confederacy with lesser sachems and sagamores under the authority of a Grand Sachem. Although the English often referred to Wampanoag sachems as “kings,” there was nothing royal about the position beyond respect and a very limited authority.
Rank had few privileges, and Wampanoag sachems worked for a living like everyone else. It should also be noted that, in the absence of a suitable male heir, it was not uncommon among the Wampanoag for a woman to become the sachem (queen or squaw-sachem)
The earliest contacts between the Wampanoag and Europeans occurred during the 1500s as fishing and trading vessels roamed the New England coast. Judging from the Wampanoag’s later attitude towards the Pilgrims, most of these encounters were friendly. Some, however, were not. European captains were known to increase profits by capturing natives to sell as slaves.
Such was the case when Thomas Hunt kidnapped several Wampanoag in 1614 and later sold them in Spain. One of his victims – a Patuxet named Tisquantum (Squanto) – was purchased by Spanish monks who attempted to “civilize” him.
Eventually gaining his freedom, Squanto was able to work his way to England (apparently undeterred by his recent experience with Captain Hunt) and signed on as an interpreter for a British expedition to Newfoundland.
From there Squanto went back to Massachusetts, only to discover that, in his absence, epidemics had killed everyone in his village. As the last Patuxet, he remained with the other Wampanoag as a kind of ghost.
To Squanto’s tragic story must be added a second series of unlikely events. Living in Holland at the time was a small group of English religious dissenters who, because of persecution, had been forced to leave England. Concerned their children were becoming too Dutch and the possibility of a war between Holland and Spain, but still unwelcome in England, these gentle people decided to immigrate to the New World.
The Virginia Company agreed to transport them to the mouth of the Hudson River, took their money, and loaded them on two ships (Speedwell and Mayflower) with other English immigrants not of their faith. The little fleet set sail in July only to have the Speedwell spring a leak 300 miles out to sea.
Accompanied by the Mayflower, it barely made it back to Plymouth without sinking. Repairs failed to fix the problem, so in September everyone was crammed aboard the Mayflower, and the whole mess sent merrily on its seasick way to the New World.
Landfall occurred near Cape Cod after 65 days and a very rough passage, but strangely enough, the Mayflower’s captain, who had managed to cross the Atlantic during hurricane season, suddenly was unable to sail around some shoals and take them farther south.
This forced the Pilgrims to find a place to settle in Massachusetts and try to survive a New England winter with few supplies.
For the Virginia Company, there was no problem, since in 1620, Great Britain claimed the boundary of Virginia reached as far north as the present border between Maine and New Brunswick.
So the Pilgrims were still in Virginia (although perhaps a little farther north than originally promised), but remembering Britain’s concern at the time about French settlement in Nova Scotia, the misplacement of the Pilgrims to New England may not have been entirely an accident.
Skipping past the signing of the Mayflower Compact, the first concerns of the new arrivals were finding something to eat and a place to settle. After anchoring off Cape Cod on November 11, 1620, a small party was sent ashore to explore.
Pilgrims in every sense of the word, they promptly stumbled into a Nauset graveyard where they found baskets of corn which had been left as gifts for the deceased.
The gathering of this unexpected bounty was interrupted by the angry Nauset warriors, and the hapless Pilgrims beat a hasty retreat back to their boat with little to show for their efforts. Shaken but undaunted by their welcome to the New World, the Pilgrims continued across Cape Cod Bay and decided to settle, of all places, at the site of the now-deserted Wampanoag village of Patuxet.
There they sat for the next few months in crude shelters – cold, sick and slowly starving to death. Half did not survive that terrible first winter. The Wampanoag were aware of the English but chose to avoid contact them for the time being.
In keeping with the strange sequence of unlikely events, Samoset, a Pemaquid (Abenaki) sachem from Maine hunting in Massachusetts, came across the growing disaster at Plymouth.
Having acquired some English from contact with English fishermen and the short-lived colony at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 1607, he walked into Plymouth in March and startled the Pilgrims with “Hello Englishmen.” Samoset stayed the night surveying the situation and left the next morning.
He soon returned with Squanto. Until he succumbed to sickness and joined his people in 1622, Squanto devoted himself to helping the Pilgrims who were now living at the site of his old village. Whatever his motivations, with great kindness and patience, he taught the English the skills they needed to survive, and in so doing, assured the destruction of his own people.
Although Samoset appears to have been more important in establishing the initial relations, Squanto also served as an intermediary between the Pilgrims and Massasoit, the Grand sachem of the Wampanoag (actual name Woosamaquin or “Yellow Feather”).
For the Wampanoag, the ten years previous to the arrival of the Pilgrims had been the worst of times beyond all imagination. Micmac war parties had swept down from the north after they had defeated the Penobscot during the Tarrateen War (1607-15), while at the same time the Pequot had invaded southern New England from the northwest and occupied eastern Connecticut.
By far the worst event had been the three epidemics which killed 75% of the Wampanoag. In the aftermath of this disaster, the Narragansett, who had suffered relatively little because of their isolated villages on the islands of Narragansett Bay, had emerged as the most powerful tribe in the area and forced the weakened Wampanoag to pay them tribute.
Massasoit, therefore, had good reason to hope the English could benefit his people and help them end Narragansett domination. In March (1621) Massasoit, accompanied by Samoset, visited Plymouth and signed a treaty of friendship with the English giving them permission of occupy the approximately 12,000 acres of what was to become the Plymouth plantation.
However, it is very doubtful Massasoit fully understood the distinction between the European concept of owning land versus the native idea of sharing it. For the moment, this was unimportant since so many of his people had died during the epidemics that New England was half-deserted. Besides, it must have been difficult for the Wampanoag to imagine how any people so inept could ever be a danger to them.
The friendship and cooperation continued, and the Pilgrims were grateful enough that fall to invite Massasoit to celebrate their first harvest with them (The First Thanksgiving). Massasoit and 90 of his men brought five deer, and the feasting lasted for three days. The celebration was a little premature.
During the winter of 1622, a second ship arrived unexpectedly from England, and with 40 new mouths to feed, the Pilgrims were once again starving. Forgiving the unfortunate incident in the graveyard the previous year, the Nauset sachem Aspinet brought food to Plymouth.
To the Narragansett all of this friendship between the Wampanoag and English had the appearance of a military alliance directed against them, and in 1621 they sent a challenge of arrows wrapped in a snakeskin to Plymouth.
Although they could barely feed themselves and were too few for any war, the English replaced the arrows with gunpowder and returned it. While the Narragansett pondered the meaning of this strange response, they were attacked by the Pequot, and Plymouth narrowly avoided another disaster. The war with the Pequot no sooner ended than the Narragansett were fighting the Mohawk.
By the time this ended, Plymouth was firmly established. Meanwhile, the relationship between the Wampanoag and English grew stronger. When Massasoit became dangerously ill during the winter of 1623, he was nursed back to health by the English.
By 1632 the Narragansett were finally free to reassert their authority over the Wampanoag. Massasoit’s village at Montaup (Sowam) was attacked, but when the colonists supported the Wampanoag, the Narragansett finally were forced to abandon the effort.
After 1630 the original 102 English colonists who founded Plymouth (less than half were actually Pilgrims) were absorbed by the massive migration of the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony near Boston.
Barely tolerant of other Christians, the militant Puritans were soldiers and merchants whose basic attitude towards Native Americans was not one of friendship and cooperation.
Under this new leadership, the English expanded west into the Connecticut River Valley and during 1637 destroyed the powerful Pequot confederacy which opposed them. Afterwards they entered into an alliance with the Mohegan upsetting the balance of power.
By 1643 the Mohegan had defeated the Narragansett in a war, and with the full support of Massachusetts, emerged as the dominant tribe in southern New England. With the French in Canada focused to the west on the fur trade from the Great Lakes, only the alliance of the Dutch and Mohawk in New York stood in their way.
Boston traders had tried unsuccessfully to lure the Mohawk away from the Dutch in 1640 by selling firearms, but the Dutch had countered with their own weapons and in the process dramatically escalated the level of violence in the Beaver Wars which were raging along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes.
The barrier fell when the English captured New York from the Dutch in 1664 and signed their own treaty with the Mohawk. Between 1640 to 1675 new waves of settlers arrived in New England and pushed west into native lands. While the Pilgrims usually had paid or asked permission, the Puritans were inclined to take.
There was an especially large amount of immigration after 1660 when the Restoration ended the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell, and Puritans were in extreme disfavor with the new English monarchy of Charles II. At the same time there had been a fundamental change in New England’s economy.
After the Mohawk treaty, many of the Boston fur traders left New England and moved west to Albany near the Iroquois. No longer restrained by the possibility of war with the English, the Iroquois fell on the Algonquin in western New England and began driving them east at the same time English settlement was rapidly swallowing lands in the east.
By 1665 Native Americans in southern New England were simply in the way. The English no longer needed their wilderness skills to survive, and fishing and other commerce had largely replaced the fur and wampum trade which had been the mainstays of the colonial economy during the early years.
While there was nothing to equal the devastation of 1614-20, the native population had continued to decline from continuing epidemics: 1633, 1635, 1654, 1661 and 1667. The Puritans’ “humane” solution to this after 1640 was the missionary work of John Eliot and others to convert the native population.
How “humane” these efforts actually were is a matter of opinion. Converts were settled in small communities of “Praying Indians” at Natick, Nonantum, Punkapog, and other locations. Natives even partially resistant to the Puritan version of Christianity were unwelcome.
Attendance at church was mandatory, clothing and hair changed to proper colonial styles, and even a hint of traditional ceremony and religion was grounds for expulsion. Tribal culture and authority disintegrated in the process.
Even Massasoit fell in with the adoption of English customs and before his death in 1661, petitioned the General Court at Plymouth to give English names to his two sons. The eldest Wamsutta was renamed Alexander, and his younger brother Metacomet became Philip.
Married to Queen Weetamoo of Pocasset, Alexander became grand sachem of the Wampanoag upon the death of his father. The English were not pleased with his independent attitude, and invited him to Plymouth for “talks.”
After eating a meal in Duxbury, Alexander became violently ill and died. The Wampanoag were told he died of a fever, but the records from the Plymouth Council at the time make note of an expense for poison “to rid ourselves of a pest.”
The following year Metacomet (Wewesawanit) succeeded his murdered brother as grand sachem of the Wampanoag eventually becoming known to the English as King Philip.
Metacomet aka King Philip - Philip does not appear to have been a man of hate, but under his leadership, the Wampanoag attitude towards the colonists underwent a drastic change.
Realizing that the English would not stop until they had taken everything, Philip was determined to prevent further expansion of English settlement, but this was impossible for the Wampanoag by themselves since they were down to only 1,000 people by this time.
Travelling from his village at Mount Hope, Philip began to slowly enlist other tribes for this purpose. Even then it was a daunting task, since the colonists in New England by this time outnumbered the natives better than two to one (35,000 versus 15,000). Philip made little attempt to disguise his purpose, and through a network of spies (Praying Indians), the English knew what he was doing. Summoned to Taunton in 1671, Philip listened to accusations and signed an agreement to give up the Wampanoag’s firearms. However, he did not stay around for dinner afterwards, and the guns were never surrendered.
As English encroachment continued, Philip eventually won promises of support from the Nipmuc, Pocumtuc and Narragansett. Because the Narragansett needed time to build a supply of ammunition and guns, it appears the uprising was planned for the spring of 1676. Meanwhile, the English saw what was coming, and the tension was becoming unbearable.
In January, 1675 the body of John Sassamon, a Christian Indian informer, was discovered in the ice of Assowampset Pond. Three Wampanoag warriors were arrested, tried for the murder, and hanged. After this provocation, Philip could no longer restrain his warriors, and amid rumors the English intended to arrest him, Philip held a council of war at Mount Hope.
He could count on the support of most of the Wampanoag except for those on the off-shore islands. For similar reasons, the Nauset on Cape Cod would also remain neutral, but most Nipmuc and Pocumtuc were ready for war along with some of the Pennacook and Abenaki. The Narragansett, however, had not completed preparations and had been forced to sign a treaty with the English.
In late June a Wampanoag was killed near the English settlement at Swansea, and the King Philip’s War (1675-76) began. The Wampanoag attacked Swansea and ambushed an English relief column. Other raids struck near Taunton, Tiverton, and Dartmouth. Despite being forewarned and their advantage in numbers, the English were in serious trouble.
Well-armed with firearms (some French, but many acquired through trade with the English themselves), the Wampanoag and their allies even had their own forges and gunsmiths. Drawing from virtually every tribe in New England, Philip commanded more than 1,000 warriors, and even the tribes who chose to remain neutral were often willing to provide food and shelter.
Only the Mohegan under Oneko (Uncas’ son) remained loyal to the English. Particularly disturbing to the colonists was the defection of most of the “Praying Indians.” When Puritan missionaries attempted to gather their converts, only 500 could be found. The others had either taken to the woods or joined Philip. Their loyalty still suspect, the Praying Indians who remained were sent to the islands of Boston Harbor and other “plantations of confinement.”
The English assembled an army at Plymouth in July and marched on Philip’s village at Mount Hope (near Bristol, Rhode Island) burning every Wampanoag village enroute. They trapped the Wampanoag in a swamp on Pocasset Neck, but they managed to evacuate their women and children by canoe across the bay to the Pocasset of Queen Weetamoo (Alexander’s widow).
Philip and his warriors then slipped away leaving the English besieging an empty swamp! Leaving his women and children under the care of the still-neutral Narragansett, Philip moved west into the Nipmuc country of central Massachusetts.
Although English accounts usually credit Philip as being present at almost every battle in the war, this would have been physically impossible. Philip provided political leadership, while others like Anawon, Tuspaquin, Sagamore Sam (Nipmuc), and Sancumachu (Pocumtuc) led the actual attacks. From Philip’s new location in the west, the war then resumed at an even more furious pace than before.
The Nipmuc raided Brookfield and Worcester and then combined with the Pocumtuc to attack settlements in the Connecticut River Valley. After a raid at Northfield, a relief force under Captain Beers was ambushed south of town and more than half killed. Three survivors were captured and burned at the stake. In September Deerfield and Hadley were attacked forcing the colonists to abandon their homes and fort-up together in Deerfield.
Facing a winter without food, 80 soldiers under Captain Thomas Lothrop were dispatched with 18 teamsters to gather the abandoned crops near Hadley. All went well until the return journey, when the expedition was ambushed by the 700 Pocumtuc at Bloody Brook south of Deerfield. Another English force with 60 Mohegan warriors arrived too late and found only seven survivors.
Deep sea spider
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Having dealt with the northern settlements on the Connecticut River, Philip’s warriors began to work south attacking Hatfield, Springfield, Westfield, and Northampton (three separate times). Even with the help of the Mohegan, the English in western Massachusetts were hard-pressed, and by late fall, they were on the defensive and confined to a handful of forts.
By this time Philip felt confident enough to return to the Narragansett in Rhode Island and collect his women and children. Travelling west to the Connecticut River, he moved north to the vicinity of Deerfield and then west into the Berkshire Mountains where he established his winter quarters just across the border from Massachusetts at Hoosick, New York.
Gaining new recruits from among the Sokoki (and even a few Mahican and Mohawk), the population of Philip’s village at Hoosick grew to more than 2,000, and the winter of 1675-76 was a long, terrible battle with hunger.
For obvious reasons, the English considered neutral tribes who helped the Wampanoag as enemies, but their efforts to stop this widened the war. At the outbreak of the fighting, the Narragansett had gathered themselves in single large fort in a swamp near Kingston, Rhode Island.
Although it appeared they were on the verge of annulling their treaty with the English and entering the war on the side of Philip, the only thing they had been guilty of during the first six months of the conflict was providing shelter for Wampanoag women, children, and other non-combatants.
In December of 1675, Governor Josiah Winslow of Plymouth led a 1,000 man army with 150 Mohegan scouts against the Narragansett. The English demanded the Narragansett surrender of any Wampanoag who remained and join them against Philip.
When this was refused, the English attacked. Known as the Great Swamp Fight (December 19, 1675), the battle almost destroyed the Narragansett. In all they lost more than 600 warriors and at least 20 of their sachems, but the English also lost heavily to and was in no condition to pursue the Narragansett who escaped. Led by their sachem, Canonchet, many of the survivors joined Philip at Hoosick.
Philip in the meantime had attempted to bring the Mohawk into the war against New England. New York’s governor Edmund Andros was a royal appointee with little love for the Puritans in Massachusetts and at first kept his colony neutral. This changed when he learned of Philip’s efforts to enlist the Iroquois.
From long experience, the Iroquois were not comfortable with the presence of a large group of heavily-armed Algonquin on their borders (they had been at war with them for more than a century), and after several Mohawk were killed near Hoosick under questionable circumstances, refused Philip’s request. Encouraged by Governor Andros, the Mohawk became hostile and forced Philip to leave New York.
He relocated east to Squawkeag in the Connecticut Valley near the border of Massachusetts and Vermont. Philip did not wait for warmer weather to resume the war.
In February he launched a new series of raids throughout New England using his most effective weapon …fire. Victims included: Lancaster, Medfield, Weymouth, Groton, Warwick (Rhode Island), Marlborough, Rehoboth, Plymouth, Chelmsford, Andover, Sudbury, Brookfield, Scituate, Bridgewater, and Namasket.
As English soldiers rushed about trying to cope, they fell victim to ambushes. In March Canonchet and the Narragansett almost wiped out one command (60 killed), and in another fight shortly afterwards killed 70 more. With these successes Philip was able to gather a large number of warriors at Squawkeag, but he was unable to feed them.
Although he was able to raid the English with impunity and fend off the Mohawk, Philip desperately needed to clear English settlement from the area so his people could plant corn and feed themselves. For this reason, the Narragansett and Pocumtuc joined forces in attacks on Northfield and Deerfield during the spring of 1676. Both raids were ultimately repulsed with heavy losses.
Meanwhile, Philip’s followers needed seed corn for spring planting. Canonchet volunteered in April for the dangerous task of returning to Rhode Island where the Narragansett had a secret cache. He succeeded, but on the return journey was captured and executed by the Mohegan.
Canonchet’s death seemed to dishearten Philip and marked the turning point of the war. Philip moved his headquarters to Mount Wachusett, but the English had finally begun to utilize Praying Indians as scouts and became more effective. In May Captain William Turner attacked a fishing camp at Turner’s Falls killing over 400 (including the Pocumtuc sachem Sancumachu).
Before forced to retreat by superior numbers, the English also killed several gunsmiths and destroyed Philip’s forges. Turner lost 43 men on his retreat to Hatfield , but the damage had been done. Philip’s confederacy began to break up, and it was everyone for himself. Some Nipmuc and Pocumtuc accepted an offer of sanctuary by New York and settled with the Mahican at Schaghticook.
Others joined forces with the Sokoki (western Abenaki) and moved north to Cowasuck, Missisquoi, and Odanak (St. Francois) in Quebec. Philip and the Wampanoag, however, chose to return to their homeland in southeast Massachusetts.
Throughout the summer the Wampanoag were hunted down by Captain Benjamin Church’s rangers and Praying Indian scouts. Philip went into hiding near Mount Hope, but Queen Awashonks of the Sakonett surrendered and switched sides.
On August 1st Philip escaped during an attack on his village, but the English captured his wife and son who were sent as prisoners to Martha’s Vineyard. Five days later, the Pocasset were caught near Taunton, and Weetamoo (Alexander’s widow) drowned while trying to escape.
The English cut off her head and put it on display in Taunton. Philip and Anawon remained in hiding in the swamp near Mount Hope until betrayed by an informer, John Alderman. Guided by Alderman, Benjamin Church’s rangers surrounded Philip on August 12th. Alderman shot and killed Philip (for which he was given one of Philip’s hands as a trophy). Philip’s corpse was beheaded and quartered.
His head was displayed on a pole at Plymouth for 25 years. Anawon was captured on August 28th and later killed by a mob, and Tuspaquin was executed by firing squad after he surrendered. Philip’s wife and son were reportedly sold as slaves to the West Indies, but it appears they were instead exiled from Massachusetts and joined the Sokoki at Odanak.
The war should have ended with Philip’s death, but peace treaties were not signed for another two years. Meanwhile, the English continued to hunt down Philip’s allies and those who had helped them. An expedition under Captain Richard Waldon attacked the Nashua in the midst of peace negotiations during 1676 killing 200. The prisoners were sold as slaves. Samuel Mosely followed this with an unprovoked attack on the neutral Pennacook.
Other expeditions against the Androscoggin and Ossipee finally drew the Kennebec and Penobscot of the eastern Abenaki into the war. In November, 1676 an English army attacked Squawkeag and destroyed the corn needed for the coming winter. The Sokoki withdrew north to the protection of the French in Canada, but the English had provoked the Abenaki and Sokoki into at least 50 years of hostility.
With Philip and most of their leaders dead, the Wampanoag were nearly exterminated. Only 400 survived the war. The Narragansett and Nipmuc had similar losses, and although small bands continued to live along the Connecticut River until the 1800s, the Pocumtuc disappeared as an organized group.
For the English, the war was also costly: 600 killed and more than half of 90 settlements attacked with 13 destroyed. Edward Randolph, an agent of the crown, estimated 3,000 natives were killed, but his estimate appears to have been very conservative.
From a pre-war native population in southern New England of 15,000, only 4,000 were left in 1680, and the harsh peace terms imposed by the English placed them in total subjugation. In what has been called the Great Dispersal, the Algonquins in southern New England fled either to the Sokoki and French in Canada, or west to the Delaware and Iroquois.
Except for the villages on the off-shore islands which had remained neutral, the surviving mainland Wampanoag after the war were relocated with the Sakonnet or mixed with the Nauset in Praying Villages in western Barnstable County. The Wampanoag community on Martha’s Vineyard has persisted to the present day, although the one on Nantucket was destroyed by an unknown epidemic in 1763.
The mainland Wampanoag became increasingly concentrated near Mashpee, but Massachusetts withdrew recognition during the 1800s. Without benefit of a treaty with the United States, only the Wampanoag at Gay Head have been able to gain federal recognition.
https://ohiomayflower.org/wampanoag-story/
The Wampanoag are one of many Nations of people all over North America who were here long before any Europeans arrived, and have survived until today. Many people use the word “Indian” to describe us, but we prefer to be called Native People.
Our name, Wampanoag, means People of the First Light. In the 1600s, we had as many as 40,000 people in the 67 villages that made up the Wampanoag Nation.
These villages covered the territory along the east coast as far as Wessagusset (today called Weymouth), all of what is now Cape Cod and the islands of Natocket and Noepe (now called Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard), and southeast as far as Pokanocket (now Bristol and Warren, Rhode Island). We have been living on this part of Turtle Island for over fifteen thousand years.
The Wampanoag, like many other Native People, often refer to the earth as Turtle Island. Today, about 4,000-5,000 Wampanoag live in New England. There are three primary groups – Mashpee, Aquinnah, and Manomet – with several other groups forming again as well. Recently, we also found some of our relations in the Caribbean islands.
These people are descendants of Native Wampanoag People who were sent into slavery after a war between the Wampanoag and English. We, as the People, still continue our way of life through our oral traditions (the telling of our family and Nation's history), ceremonies, the Wampanoag language, song and dance, social gatherings, hunting and fishing.
The Wampanoag Homeland provided bountiful food for fulfillment of all our needs. It was up to the People to keep the balance andWampanoag clambake respect for all living beings and to receive all the gifts from The Creator. We were seasonal people living in the forest and valleys during winter. During the summer, spring, and fall, we moved to the rivers, ponds, and ocean to plant crops, fish and gather foods from the forests.
Because of many changes in North America, we as the Wampanoag cannot live as our ancestors did. We adapt but still continue to live in the way of the People of the First Light.
This article was written by Nancy Eldredge, Nauset Wampanoag and Penobscot.
https://www.plimoth.org/learn/just-kids/homework-help/who-are-wampanoag
The Dong Son Drum (or Dongson Drum) is ?the most famous artifact of the Southeast Asian Dongson culture, a complex society of farmers and sailors who lived in what is today northern Vietnam, and made bronze and iron objects between about 600 BC and AD 200.
The drums, which are found throughout southeast Asia, can be enormous--a typical drum is 70 centimeters (27 inches) in diameter--with a flat top, bulbous rim, straight sides, and a splayed foot.
The Dong Son drum is the earliest form of bronze drum found in southern China and southeast Asia, and they have been used by many different ethnic groups from prehistoric times to the present. Most of the early examples are found in northern Vietnam and southwestern China, specifically, Yunnan Province and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
The Dong Son drums were produced in the Tonkin area of northern Vietnam and southern China beginning about 500 BC and then traded or otherwise distributed throughout island Southeast Asia as far as the western New Guinea mainland and the island of Manus.
The earliest written records describing the Dongson drum appear in the Shi Ben, a Chinese book dated from the 3rd century BC. The Hou Han Shu, a late Han dynasty book dated to the 5th century AD, describes how the Han dynasty rulers collected bronze drums from what is now northern Vietnam to melt down and recast into bronze horses.
Examples of Dongson Drums have been found in elite burial assemblages at the major Dongson culture sites of Dong Son, Viet Khe, and Shizhie Shan.
The Kino in Vancouver on Cambie street, Vancouver CA
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Designs on the highly ornamented Dong Son drums reflect a sea-oriented society. Some have elaborate friezes of figured scenes, featuring boats and warriors wearing elaborate feather head-dresses.
Other common watery designs include bird-motifs, small three-dimensional animals (frogs or toads?), long boats, fish, and geometric symbols of clouds and thunder. Human figures, long-tailed flying birds and stylized depictions of boats are typical on the bulging upper part of the drums. One iconic image found on the top of all Dongson drums is a classic "starburst", with a various number of spikes radiating out from a center. This image is immediately recognizable to westerners as a representation of a sun or a star. Whether that was what the makers had in mind is something of a puzzle.
Vietnamese scholars tend to view the decorations on the drums as a reflection of cultural characteristics of the Lac Viet people, early residents of Vietnam; Chinese scholars interpret the same decorations as evidence of a cultural exchange between interior China and China's southern frontier.
One outlier theorist is Austrian scholar Robert von Heine-Geldern, who pointed out that the earliest Bronze Age drums in the world come from 8th century BC Scandinavia and the Balkans: he suggested that some of the decorative motifs including tangent-circles, ladder-motif, meanders and hatched triangles may have roots in the Balkans. Heine-Geldern's theory is a minority position.
Another point of contention is the central star: it has been interpreted by western scholars to represent the sun (suggesting the drums are part of a solar cult), or perhaps the Pole Star, marking the center of the sky (but the Pole Star is not visible in much of southeast Asia).
The real crux of the issue is that the typical southeast Asian sun/star icon is not a round center with triangles representing the rays, but rather a circle with straight or wavy lines emanating from its edges. The star form is undeniably a decorative element found on Dongson drums, but its meaning and nature is unknown at present.
Long-beaked and long-tailed birds with outstretched wings are often seen on the drums, and interpreted as typically aquatic, such as herons or cranes. These too have been used to argue a foreign contact from Mesopotamia/Egypt/Europe with southeast Asia. Again, this is a minority theory that crops up in the literature (see Loofs-Wissowa for a detailed discussion).
But, contact with such far-flung societies is not a totally crazy idea: Dongson sailors likely participated in the Maritime Silk Road which could account for long-distance contact with late Bronze Age societies in India and the rest of the world.There is no doubt that the drums themselves were made by the Dongson people, and where they got the ideas for some of their motifs is (to my mind anyway) not particularly significant.
The first archaeologist to comprehensively study southeast Asian drums was Franz Heger, an Austrian archaeologist, who categorized the drums into four types and three transitory types. Heger's Type 1 was the earliest form, and that is the one called the Dong Son drum.
It wasn't until the 1950s that Vietnamese and Chinese scholars began their own investigations. A rift was established between the two countries, in that each set of scholars claimed the invention of bronze drums for their resident countries.
That split of interpretation has persisted. In terms of classifying drum styles, for example, Vietnamese scholars kept Heger's typology, while Chinese scholars created their own classifications. While antagonism between the two sets of scholars has melted away, neither side has changed its overall position.
https://www.thoughtco.com/dong-son-drums-bronze-age-169896
The Lionsgate Portal is considered a gateway into the heavens and into higher realms of consciousness.
During this time, higher frequency energies from the star, Sirius are beamed down onto Earth, in order to help advance the human race and raise the consciousness of the planet.
The Lionsgate Portal is activated every year on August 8th when the Sun, Sirius, and the Earth move to specific points in the sky.
During this time it is easier to access higher realms, and receive downloads from angels, messengers, and your loved ones from the other side.
It is also a favorable time for healing deep seeded wounds, and opening both the heart chakra and third eye.
But what exactly is taking place in the cosmos that allows us to experience this?
The Lionsgate Portal involves three key players- the Sun, the Earth, and the star Sirius.
Sirius has long been known as our “Spiritual Sun” and is revered by many ancient cultures as a place of higher consciousness.
It is believed that higher frequency beings inhabit Sirius and that it is home to the purest type of love.
Many ancient Shamanic tribes also believe that Sirius is the gateway to heaven, and that our souls go there once we depart from our physical bodies.
Sirius is also believed to be far more technologically advanced than Earth, and many Starseeds who have memories of originating from Sirius, claim that they have access to technologies that are nowhere near close to being discovered on Earth.
Even though Lionsgate happens on August 8th, it is actually set in motion in July.
On July 4, the energy of the Sun and Sirius align.
Now, both these stars are very far away, but looking up at the sky, it appears that they merge into one another.
The merging of their energies was seen as very auspicious and was considered a time where our Sun would fuse with the energy of Sirius in order to upgrade its energy and level of frequency.
For all of July, the ancients watched our Sun get swallowed by the magnificent Sirius, and it was believed at this time that our Sun experienced a type of “death”. The ancients would watch as these two heavenly bodies would appear as one, and would wonder what secrets and messages Sirius would be whispering to our Sun.
Then come the first week of August, Sirius and the Sun would rise again as separate stars.
This was an auspicious time and represented a grand rebirth and the opening of the Lionsgate portal.
Sirius would align in Orion’s belt, the Sun would be in the constellation of Leo (hence the name Lionsgate), and together our physical Sun and spiritual Sun would beam down onto Earth, activating these higher frequencies.
Although the rising of Sirius and the Sun happens during the first week of the month, the 8th of August is still considered the most auspicious and the most significant date of this portal because it is when the Sun and the Earth align directly opposite each other.
It is this opposition that allows our newborn Sun, that has been bathed in the glorious Sirian energy to send high-frequency beams directly to planet Earth.
These high frequencies can make it easier for Earth’s inhabitants to receive upgrades, updates, downloads, and higher wisdom and knowledge.
This high-frequency energy is mostly received through the heart chakra and third eye.
It is common around the time of the Lionsgate Portal to receive heart healings, heart openings, and third-eye awakenings.
Because this energy is so easily accessible, doing rituals and working on your heart and third eye chakras can be extremely effective and potent.
It is also a powerful time to do release work to help cleanse away any blockages that may be present.
Even though the heart and third eye chakras are always activated around the time of the Lionsgate Portal, in 2018, it also seems that the chakra at the back of our neck is also going to be activated.
This little-known chakra is called the Cerebellum Chakra, and is extremely sensitive to psychic energies and empathic energies.
Empaths are on the rise on planet Earth, and this is because we desperately need more love, empathy, compassion, and understanding.
The greater message for Lionsgate 2018 is to embrace these empathic qualities and to think about we can use them to help serve the planet.
The energy from this Lionsgate is about honoring empathic gifts and knowing that they can be a source of strength, rather than a weakness.
We live in a world where showing empathy is not always encouraged, but if the Sirian waves can tell us anything, it is that love reigns supreme.
In fact, the only thing that is real, the only thing that is left when we strip the ego bare, is love.
The more we can love through our hurts and through our sorrows, the more we can forgive, the more we can open our hearts to the beings we share this planet with, the greater chance we have to create a better world for ourselves and each other.
Loving is really about accepting one another, and trusting that even though we may have different values, and different ways of life, we are all here on our own unique journey and we are all here to teach and show each other the way.
Loving is not about allowing yourself to become a doormat or tolerating bad behaviour, it is about acknowledging and accepting people for exactly who they are.
It is about accepting without judgement, and seeing that there is so much more to each and every one of us than just what we see.
We are all cut from the same cloth, we are all made of the same thing, and we will all return to the same place.
We were all chosen to be born on Earth to help the planet, to help our fellow humans, and to remember, even though we are constantly distracted by our differences, that we are all one and the same.
We are here for a unique journey, a journey to find love, to find ourselves, and to leave this planet in better shape than when we found it.
We don’t have to do anything heroic, we don’t have to sail the seven seas, all we need to do is find our way to the truth.
For when you arrive at the seed of truth that lives within and crack it open, all you will find is love.
During the Lionsgate Portal, protect your Cerebellum Chakra by cleansing it daily.
To do this, simply allow warm water to hit the back of your neck and repeat the following mantra or write your own-“It is safe for me to open my heart, it is safe for me to see through my eye.
It is safe for me to lean into all that I feel.
For when I do, I find my strength, I find my truth, and I find what I am guided to do.”
It is also recommended to meditate on the Lionsgate Portal to help open and receive any intuitive messages and insights.
http://foreverconscious.com/lionsgate-portal-august-2018
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