During the last ice age, people journeyed across the ancient land bridge connecting Asia to North America. That land is now submerged underwater, but a newly created digital map reveals how the landscape likely appeared about 18,000 years ago.
In fact, the map shows all of Beringia — the sprawling region that includes parts of Russia, known as western Beringia; Alaska, called eastern Beringia; and the ancient land bridge that connected the two. The timing was nigh for a new Beringia map, said Jeffrey Bond, who studies the geology of ice age sediments at the Yukon Geological Survey in Canada.
The 2008 map at the Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre was out of date, and he wanted visitors, who come to learn about Beringia's ice age humans and animals, to get a better sense of what the region used to look like. [10 Extinct Giants That Once Roamed North America]
Moreover, two new datasets recently became available that helped Bond create the new map: Global satellite imagery from World Imagery, and a topography of the region's sea floor, produced by the University of Alaska Fairbanks.
"These two freely available datasets, along with the glacial limits (distribution of ice during the last glaciation), combined for a fantastic set of base layers to create a new map," Bond told Live Science in an email.
Although it's gone now, the Bering Land Bridge persisted for thousands of years, from about 30,000 years ago to 16,000 years ago, according to global sea level estimates, said Julie Brigham-Grette, a professor and department head of geosciences at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. Brigham-Grette, who advised Bond on sea levels and geography, was one of the many scientists who offered helpful information to Bond during the making of the map.
"The drop at 30,000 years ago was very rapid with the build up of ice sheets over North America," Brigham-Grette told Live Science in an email. "So for most of the time from about 30,000 to 18,000 years ago, the land bridge was nearly 1,000 kilometers [620 miles] wide in the north-south direction."
That's why, in part, Bond chose to portray Beringia at 18,000 years ago, he said. After that, the ice began to recede and sea levels began to rise. At 18,000 years ago, Beringia was a relatively cold and dry place, with little tree cover. But it was still speckled with rivers and streams. Bond's map shows that it likely had a number of large lakes.
"Grasslands, shrubs and tundra-like conditions would have prevailed in many places," Bond said. These environments helped megafauna — animals heavier than 100 lbs. (45 kilograms) — thrive, including the woolly mammoth, Beringian lion, short-faced bear, grizzly bear, muskox, steppe bison, American scimitar cat, caribou, Yukon horse, saiga antelope, gray wolf and giant beaver, according to the Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre.
A modern-day photo of Wrangel Island in the East Siberian Sea. Perhaps central Beringia looked similar to this during the last ice age. (Image credit: Julie Brigham-Grette)
This vast, open region allowed megafauna and early humans to live off the land, Brigham-Grette said. However, it's still a mystery exactly when humans began crossing the land bridge. Genetic studies show that the first humans to cross became genetically isolated from people in East Asia between about 25,000 to 20,000 years ago.
And archaeological evidence shows that people reached the Yukon at least 14,000 years ago, Bond said. But it's still unclear how long it took the first Americans to cross the bridge and what route they took.
"The fact that this land bridge was repeatedly exposed and flooded and exposed and flooded over the past 3 million years is really interesting because Beringia, at its largest extent, was really a high latitude continental landscape in its own right," Brigham-Grette said.
Now that the Bering Strait is filled with water, it's a gateway linking the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans through the Arctic Basin. "There are few places like it on our planet that have such a complex paleo geography," Brigham-Grette said.
https://www.livescience.com/64786-beringia-map-during-ice-age.html
Vua ngày xưa ăn uống như thế nào, thức ăn gồm những món gì, việc nấu nướng ra sao là câu chuyện nhiều người muốn tìm hiểu. Theo sách Lễ Tết ăn chơi trong cung Nguyễn, vua và gia đình, các buổi yến tiệc trong cung, các buổi cúng tế được phục vụ ẩm thực chu đáo.
Astarte, also known as Ashtoreth, the ancient Phoenician great goddess of fertility, motherhood, and war, is the counterpart of the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, and is one of the oldest Middle Eastern aspects of the great Goddess, dating to the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Tammuz also is identified as her son/consort as he is with Ishtar. According to legend Astarte descended to earth as a fiery star, landing near Byblos in a lake at Alphaca, the site where the original Tammuz is said to have died. The Phoenicians portrayed Astarte with cow horns, representing fertility. The Assyrians and Babylonians pictured her caressing a child. She was associated with the moon and called the Mother of the Universe, giver of all live on Earth. She ruled all spirits of the dead residing in heaven, visible from earth as stars; hence came her name Astroarche, "Queen of the Stars." She was called the mother of souls in heaven, the Moon surrounded by her star-children, to whom she gave their "astral" (starry) bodies. Occultists still refer to the astral body as the invisible double, without remembering the term's original connotation of starlight. Her other counterparts are Isis, Hathor of Egypt, Kali of India, and Aphrodite and Demeter of Greece. However, the mother goddess in the Ras Shamra texts appears as Anat, Athirat, and Athtart, or Astrate. Anat, the consort and sister of Baal, the most active Canaanite god, was called the "lady of the mountain," and it was through he flattery of El that Baal was allowed to build a house on Saphon, a mountain situated in "the sides of the north." In spite of her maiden and mother titles Anat was an aggressive goddess who slew Baal enemies, waded in the blood of her human victims, and desired to possess Aqhat's bow. She was pictured with helmet, battle-axe, and spear. In Egypt, where the Hyksos invaders introduced her, the cow horns of Hathor became part of her iconography. Athirat, "the lady of the sea," appears to be the consort of El, the equivalent of the Hebrew god Yahweh. Her role was restricted to fertility. Astarte, "the queen of heaven," was almost as fierce as Anat but less remote than Athirat. The Hebrews knew her as the goddess of the Sidonians, whom they worshiped. This angered Yahweh who complained to the prophet Jeremiah. At Mizpah temples of Yahweh and Astarte were erected side by side, while in Upper Egypt the Hebrews considered the goddess the divine consort still in the fifth century BC. The same as in the temples of Ishtar and Inanna, the sacred marriage and temple prostitution were prominent features of the cult, of which Yahweh also complained. Astarte was a beautiful goddess as well as a dangerous one; although the horns of the bull that she wore represented fertility, they could appear fearsome. In her fearful aspect she was the "mistress of horses and chariots," which might have been an Arabian variant of the god Athtar, known as the terrible god who unsuccessfully tried to oust Baal. Astarte's name was first recorded about 1478 BC, but her cult was firmly established by then. The cult spread westward from Phoenicia into Greece, Rome, and as far as the British Isles. Prophets of the Old Testament condemned her worship because it included sexual rituals, and sacrifices of firstborn children and newborn animals to her. Some scholars hold Astarte was a prototype of the Virgin Mary. Their theory is based on the ancient Syrian and Egyptian rituals of celebrating Astarte's rebirth of the solar god on December 25th. A cry was heard that the Virgin had brought forth a newborn child, which was exhibited. Sir James Frazer in the Golden Bough writes, "No doubt the Virgin who thus conceived and bore a son on the twenty-fifth of December was the great Oriental goddess whom the Semites called the Heavenly Virgin or simply the Heavenly Goddess, in Semitic lands she was a form of Astarte." The theory that credits Astarte as being a prototype of the Virgin Mary made be given creditability by many who accept that Christ was born on December 25th; but not by those who do not believe this was the date of Christ's birth, and say the exact date is unknown. A.G.H. https://www.themystica.com/mythical-folk/articles/astarte.html
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Hàng ngày, vua có ba bữa ăn chính gồm ăn sáng lúc 6h30, ăn trưa vào 11h, ăn tối 17h cùng nhiều bữa ăn phụ khác. Yến tiệc trong cung tùy vào quy mô, nhìn chung có nhiều món. Tiệc cúng tế được tổ chức quanh năm.
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Hàng ngày, vua có ba bữa ăn chính gồm ăn sáng lúc 6h30, ăn trưa vào 11h, ăn tối 17h cùng nhiều bữa ăn phụ khác. Yến tiệc trong cung tùy vào quy mô, nhìn chung có nhiều món. Tiệc cúng tế được tổ chức quanh năm.
Hai sở lo chuyện ẩm thực - Ẩm thực trong hoàng cung là vấn đề hệ trọng. Triều Nguyễn tổ chức hai sở chuyên lo việc này. Đó là sở Lý Thiện (đông nhất đến 350 người) và Thượng Thiện được đặt ra từ thời vua Minh Mạng, có ít nhất 50 người chuyên lo việc đi chợ, nấu ăn cho vua và các bà hoàng trong tam cung, lục viện.
Mỗi bữa ăn của vua có 35 món thực phẩm, với đủ các loại của ngon vật lạ. Gạo phải thơm ngon, mềm, trồng ở phía Nam kinh thành Huế, phải chọn những hạt nguyên. Cơm được nấu trong loại nồi đất đặc biệt, được nghệ nhân vùng Phong Điền làm riêng cho hoàng cung.
Mỗi nồi nấu cơm chỉ dùng đúng một lần duy nhất, sau đó đập vỡ. Nước dùng nấu cơm hoặc pha trà cho vua phải lấy từ giếng Hàm Long dưới chân chùa Báo Quốc, hoặc thượng nguồn sông Hương.
Việc nấu các món ngự thiện phải sạch sẽ. Chỉ cần phát hiện trong thức ăn một sợi tóc hay bất cứ thứ gì khác, sở Thượng Thiện sẽ bị phạt rất nặng. Ngoài ra, chén bát dùng trong hoàng cung cũng phải đặc biệt, có ký hiệu riêng, quan lại và dân thường tuyệt đối không được sử dụng. Trong các bữa ăn, vua dùng đũa cật tre và tăm bông do thợ lành nghề vót.
Mỗi món ăn được để trong một cái vịm buộc lạt, bên ngoài có dán nhãn. Vua muốn ăn món nào thì chỉ cho thị vệ mở ra, nếu thức ăn bị lạnh thì hâm nóng lại. Ngoài ra, các bà hoàng trong cung, vì muốn được vua sủng ái, nên cũng đua nhau làm những món của ngon vật lạ để dâng lên trong các bữa ăn.
Vua ngồi ăn một mình được gọi là “ngài ngự thiện”. Trong bữa ăn, vua sẽ uống rượu do các ngự y ngâm thuốc Bắc. Đây là những loại rượu có tác dụng giúp bồi bổ sức khỏe và tăng cường sinh lực. Thức ăn tráng miệng của vua gồm các loại chè, mứt, trái cây do địa phương tiến dâng…
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Mỗi bữa ăn của vua có tới 35 món khác nhau, không thể ăn hết. Vua sẽ ban một số món ăn cho các bà hoàng trong cung và cho đại thần để bày tỏ lòng quý mến. Những người được vua “ban thiện”, khi quân lính mang thức ăn tới, sẽ hướng về phía nơi vua ở, quỳ vái năm lần để thể hiện sự biết ơn.
Đa phần vua trong cung triều Nguyễn đều ăn uống rất xa hoa, tốn kém. Tuy nhiên, vẫn có những người ăn uống giản dị, không khác dân thường. Gia Long - vị vua đầu tiên của triều Nguyễn - có sở thích ăn uống rất đơn giản.
Buổi sáng, có khi, ông chỉ ăn bát cháo trắng. Những hôm ra khỏi hoàng cung, đến công trường xây dựng, hay các xưởng đóng tàu, vua sẽ ăn cơm trong thuyền ngự gồm cơm với một số thịt, cá, rau, quả giống như các quan dưới quyền mình. Vua Gia Long không dùng rượu.
Duy Tân cũng là vị vua có chế độ ăn uống đạm bạc. Lúc nhỏ, ông phải sống với mẹ ngoài hoàng cung rất cực khổ. Sau này, khi làm vua, ông bảo thị vệ: “Trước kia, tôi thường dùng hai bát cơm úp lại với nhau và một vài con cá bống kho mặn. Cứ việc cho tôi ăn như rứa (như thế) là đủ rồi”.
Sau nhiều lần khuyên vua nên ăn uống theo các món do Thượng Thiện nấu không có hiệu quả, hoàng cung buộc phải chiều theo ý của ông. Vua Duy Tân thường rất ít khi ngồi ăn một mình. Ông thường mời thầy của mình là Mai Khắc Đôn ăn cùng và nghe Nhã nhạc. Sau này, khi có vợ (con thầy Mai Khắc Đôn), hai vợ chồng vua Duy Tân thường xuyên ngồi ăn cơm với nhau.
Vua Bảo Đại có hai giai đoạn sống trái ngược nhau. Lúc nhỏ, Bảo Đại rất thích ăn những món bình dân của xứ Huế như ruốc kho, các loại mắm, canh cá bống… Sau thời gian du học ở Pháp, ông có lối sống phương Tây. Vua ngồi ăn cơm với vợ là Nam Phương hoàng hậu cùng các con. Các vật dụng trong bữa ăn cũng theo kiểu phương Tây, ông uống rượu Tây.
https://news.zing.vn/chuyen-it-biet-ve-bua-an-cua-vua-trieu-nguyen-post821366.html
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Sử sách ghi lại bữa ăn vua chúa Việt Nam thời xưa rất cầu kỳ, như mỗi bữa có đến hàng vài chục món khác nhau. Sử Trung Quốc, bộ Tống sử từng ghi lại chuyện vua Lê Hoàn mang tặng sứ giả nhà Tống con trăn lớn, bảo nếu ăn được sẽ cho làm cỗ, mà các vị sứ giả sợ hãi không dám nhận. Đời Trần, Hậu Lê, sử có nhiều chuyện chép về yến tiệc trong cung đình, nhưng không ghi chi tiết mâm cơm nhà vua có những món gì.
Theo nhà nghiên cứu Phan Thuận An trong bài Tổ chức ăn uống của các vua triều Nguyễn trong hoàng cung Huế (đã đăng Tạp chí Xưa & Nay, sau được tuyển chọn vào sách Triều Nguyễn và Lịch sử của chúng ta, NXB Hồng Đức, 2017), cho biết trong triều Nguyễn, có những vua ăn uống cầu kỳ như Minh Mạng, Đồng Khánh, Khải Định, nhưng cũng có những vua ăn uống đơn giản như Gia Long, Duy Tân.
Cuốn 82 năm sử Việt 1802-1884 của Nguyễn Phương (ĐHSP Huế xuất bản, 1963), dẫn lời một người Tây phương đã gặp vua Gia Long ở kinh đô Huế cho biết ông ăn uống rất đơn giản. Bữa ăn của nhà vua chỉ gồm một ít thịt, cá, cơm, rau, bánh, trái. Khi ăn, vua không bao giờ cho bất cứ ai, kể cả hoàng hậu ngồi cùng bàn. Nhà vua cũng không bao giờ uống rượu.
Sách Đại Nam thực lục (Chính biên, đệ nhất kỷ, quyển 1), cũng viết về việc ăn uống của vua Gia Long khi còn chinh chiến, rằng: “Khi vua ở ngoài, bữa ăn không có nhiều vị, thường dùng mắm tôm và bảy vị hồ tiêu, ớt, hồi hương, quế chi, tỏi, gừng, mơ đen (ô mai), tán nhỏ hòa lẫn với nhau, bữa nào cũng dùng, lại cho những người đi theo và bảo rằng: “Lam chướng ở rừng biển, ăn thức ăn này tốt lắm; và để tỏ ta cùng các khanh tân khổ có nhau””. Theo bộ sử này, thì bếp ăn cho vua Gia Long ban đầu được gọi là Thuyền Nội Trù, đến năm 1808 đổi tên là đội Tư Thiện, và năm 1820, đầu thời Minh Mạng, đổi thành đội Thượng Thiện. Trụ sở của đội này là một tòa nhà 7 chái gọi là Thượng Thiện Sở, nằm ở sân trước của nhà hát Duyệt Thị Đường và đối xứng với Thái Y Viện. Biên chế của đội Thượng Thiện là 50 người.
Tương truyền, gạo của các vua Nguyễn dùng là gạo An Cựu, một loại gạo ngon nổi tiếng. Gạo phải được nấu trong các om đất nhỏ do làng Phước Tích sản xuất hàng loạt để cung ứng cho việc nấu cơm vua hằng ngày, mỗi lần nấu xong thì đập bỏ. Còn các đầu bếp trong đội Thượng Thiện đều là người làng Phước Yến, nơi đóng thủ phủ của các chúa Nguyễn thời xưa, cách Huế không xa.
Dưới thời vua Đồng Khánh, một người Pháp tên là F.Baille có dịp thăm viếng hoàng cung Huế, đã ghi lại việc ăn uống của nhà vua trong một bài viết lại rằng: “Hằng ngày, nhà vua ăn cơm ba lần, vào 6h sáng, 11h trưa và 5h chiều. Mỗi bữa ăn có 50 món khác nhau, do năm người đầu bếp nấu.
Nhà vua chỉ nhấm nháp vài món ăn và một thứ rượu mạnh đặc biệt chế biến bằng hạt sen với các loại cây có mùi thơm. Đức vua Đồng Khánh cũng dùng rượu chát Bordeaux theo lời khuyên của các y sĩ để giúp phủ tạng hơi yếu”.
Theo lời kể của vị Nhất đẳng thị vệ dưới hai triều vua Khải Định và Bảo Đại tên là Võ Văn Lang, thì mỗi bữa cơm của vua Khải Định có 35 phẩm vị, tức là món ăn. Các món ăn sau khi nấu nướng xong ở Thượng Thiện đường, sẽ được múc ra tô, đĩa, đặt vào các quả hộp bằng gỗ sơn son thếp vàng, đậy nắp lại, mang đi, có che lọng ở trên các quả hộp.
Lên đến nơi ở của vua là lầu Kiến Trung, những người phục vụ sẽ sắp xếp lại món ăn cho đẹp mắt. Khi vua ăn, ngoài các viên thị vệ có nhiệm vụ xới cơm, pha nước, quạt hầu cho vua, còn có hai vị quan từ tam, tứ phẩm trở lên có nhiệm vụ nói chuyện với vua cho vui, để vua ăn thêm ngon miệng. Hai người này phải thông thạo đủ mọi thứ chuyện đông, tây, kim cổ, từ chuyện lớn đến chuyện nhỏ để có thể trả lời các câu hỏi của vua.
Điều đặc biệt, đũa của vua dùng phải vót từ gỗ cây kim giao, mọc ở vùng núi Bạch Mã, cách Huế khoảng 60km. Tương truyền, loại gỗ này có khả năng phát hiện chất độc trong món ăn, nếu món ăn có chất độc thì đũa sẽ chuyển sang màu tím. Mỗi đôi đũa cũng chỉ dùng một lần, xong là bỏ.
Theo bài viết của Phan Thuận An, thì sau khi vua Khải Định dùng bữa xong, hai vị quan hầu sẽ được dự phần, ban cho các món ăn. Các món tráng miệng của vua thì được đặt lên một khay đầy gồm nhiều dĩa bánh, trái, đều do các bà phi, tần, thiếp thay nhau làm hoặc mua sắm để “cung tiến”.
Nhưng đến thời vua Bảo Đại, do là người Tây học, nên nhà vua thường dùng bữa cùng Hoàng hậu Nam Phương và 5 người con tại lầu Kiến Trung và chung trên một mâm như các gia đình bình dân.
https://news.zing.vn/mam-com-cua-nha-vua-viet-co-gi-post967675.html
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Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea; and on the south by the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula. It includes the Chukchi Sea, the Bering Sea, the Bering Strait, the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States.
The area includes land lying on the North American Plate and Siberian land east of the Chersky Range. Historically, it formed a land bridge that was up to 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) wide at its greatest extent and which covered an area as large as British Columbia and Alberta together, totaling approximately 1,600,000 square kilometres (620,000 square miles).
Today, the only land that is visible from the central part of the Bering land bridge are the Diomede Islands, the Pribilof Islands of St. Paul and St. George, St. Lawrence Island, and King Island. The term Beringia was coined by the Swedish botanist Eric Hultén in 1937. During the ice ages, Beringia, like most of Siberia and all of North and Northeast China, was not glaciated because snowfall was very light.[4] It was a grassland steppe, including the land bridge, that stretched for hundreds of kilometres into the continents on either side.
It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before expanding into the settlement of the Americas sometime after 16,500 years BP. This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.
Before European colonization, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. This culture remains in the region today along with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage".
Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia.
The remains of Late Pleistocene mammals that had been discovered on the Aleutians and islands in the Bering Sea at the close of the nineteenth century indicated that a past land connection might lie beneath the shallow waters between Alaska and Chukotka.
The underlying mechanism was first thought to be tectonics, but by 1930 changes in the icemass balance, leading to global sea-level fluctuations, were viewed as the cause of the Bering Land Bridge.
In 1937, Eric Hultén proposed that around the Aleutians and the Bering Strait region were tundra plants that had originally dispersed from a now-submerged plain between Alaska and Chukotka, which he named Beringia after Vitus Bering who had sailed into the strait in 1728.
The American arctic geologist David Hopkins redefined Beringia to include portions of Alaska and Northeast Asia. Beringia was later regarded as extending from the Verkhoyansk Mountains in the west to the Mackenzie River in the east. The distribution of plants in the genera Erythranthe and Pinus are good examples of this, as very similar genera members are found in Asia and the Americas.
During the Pleistocene epoch, global cooling led periodically to the expansion of glaciers and lowering of sea levels. This created land connections in various regions around the globe. Today, the average water depth of the Bering Strait is 40–50 m (130–160 ft), therefore the land bridge opened when the sea level dropped more than 50 m (160 ft) below the current level.
A reconstruction of the sea-level history of the region indicated that a seaway existed from c. 135,000 – c. 70,000 BP, a land bridge from c. 70,000 – c. 60,000 BP, intermittent connection from c. 60,000 – c. 30,000 BP, a land bridge from c. 30,000 – c. 11,000 BP, followed by a Holocene sea-level rise that reopened the strait. Post-glacial rebound has continued to raise some sections of coast.
During the last glacial period, enough of the earth's water became frozen in the great ice sheets covering North America and Europe to cause a drop in sea levels. For thousands of years the sea floors of many interglacial shallow seas were exposed, including those of the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea to the north, and the Bering Sea to the south.
Other land bridges around the world have emerged and disappeared in the same way. Around 14,000 years ago, mainland Australia was linked to both New Guinea and Tasmania, the British Isles became an extension of continental Europe via the dry beds of the English Channel and North Sea, and the dry bed of the South China Sea linked Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to Indochina.
The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the "Ice Age", spanned 125,000[24]–14,500 YBP[25] and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets began advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum limits 26,500 YBP.
Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that glacial meltwater was the primary source for an abrupt rise in sea level 14,500 YBP and the bridge was finally inundated around 11,000 YBP. The fossil evidence from many continents points to the extinction of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation.
During the Ice Age a vast, cold and dry Mammoth steppe stretched from the arctic islands southwards to China, and from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon where it was blocked by the Wisconsin glaciation. The land bridge existed because sea-levels were lower because more of the planet's water than today was locked up in glaciers.
Therefore, the flora and fauna of Beringia were more related to those of Eurasia rather than North America. Beringia received more moisture and intermittent maritime cloud cover from the north Pacific Ocean than the rest of the Mammoth steppe, including the dry environments on either side of it.
This moisture supported a shrub-tundra habitat that provided an ecological refugium for plants and animals. In East Beringia 35,000 YBP, the northern arctic areas experienced temperatures 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees warmer than today but the southern sub-Arctic regions were 2 °C (4 °F) degrees cooler.
During the LGM 22,000 YBP the average summer temperature was 3–5 °C (5–9 °F) degrees cooler than today, with variations of 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) degrees cooler on the Seward Peninsula to 7.5 °C (13.5 °F) cooler in the Yukon.[29] In the driest and coldest periods of the Late Pleistocene, and possibly during the entire Pleistocene, moisture occurred along a north–south gradient with the south receiving the most cloud cover and moisture due to the air-flow from the North Pacific.
In the Late Pleistocene, Beringia was a mosaic of biological communities. Commencing from c. 57,000 BP (MIS 3), steppe–tundra vegetation dominated large parts of Beringia with a rich diversity of grasses and herbs. There were patches of shrub tundra with isolated refugia of larch (Larix) and spruce (Picea) forests with birch (Betula) and alder (Alnus) trees.
It has been proposed that the largest and most diverse megafaunal community residing in Beringia at this time could only have been sustained in a highly diverse and productive environment. Analysis at Chukotka on the Siberian edge of the land bridge indicated that from c. 57,000 – c. 15,000 BP (MIS 3 to MIS 2) the environment was wetter and colder than the steppe–tundra to the east and west, with warming in parts of Beringia from c. 15,000 BP.
These changes provided the most likely explanation for mammal migrations after c. 15,000 BP, as the warming provided increased forage for browsers and mixed feeders. Beringia did not block the movement of most dry steppe-adapted large species such as saiga antelope, woolly mammoth, and caballid horses.
However, from the west, the woolly rhino went no further east than the Anadyr River, and from the east North American camels, the American kiang-like equids, the short-faced bear, bonnet-headed muskoxen, and American badger did not travel west.
At the beginning of the Holocene, some mesic habitat-adapted species left the refugium and spread westward into what had become tundra-vegetated northern Asia and eastward into northern North America.
The latest emergence of the land bridge was c. 70,000 years ago. However, from c. 24,000 – c. 13,000 BP the Laurentide Ice Sheet fused with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which blocked gene flow between Beringia (and Eurasia) and continental North America.
The Yukon corridor opened between the receding ice sheets c. 13,000 BP, and this once again allowed gene flow between Eurasia and continental North America until the land bridge was finally closed by rising sea levels c. 10,000 BP.
During the Holocene, many mesic-adapted species left the refugium and spread eastward and westward, while at the same time the forest-adapted species spread with the forests up from the south. The arid adapted species were reduced to minor habitats or became extinct.
Beringia constantly transformed its ecosystem as the changing climate affected the environment, determining which plants and animals were able to survive. The land mass could be a barrier as well as a bridge: during colder periods, glaciers advanced and precipitation levels dropped.
During warmer intervals, clouds, rain and snow altered soils and drainage patterns. Fossil remains show that spruce, birch and poplar once grew beyond their northernmost range today, indicating that there were periods when the climate was warmer and wetter.
The environmental conditions were not homogenous in Beringia. Recent stable isotope studies of woolly mammoth bone collagen demonstrate that western Beringia (Siberia) was colder and drier than eastern Beringia (Alaska and Yukon), which was more ecologically diverse.
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Mastodons, which depended on shrubs for food, were uncommon in the open dry tundra landscape characteristic of Beringia during the colder periods. In this tundra, mammoths flourished instead.
The extinct pine species Pinus matthewsii has been described from Pliocene sediments in the Yukon areas of the refugium. The paleo-environment changed across time. Below is a gallery of some of the plants that inhabited eastern Beringia before the beginning of the Holocene.
The earliest Canis lupus specimen was a fossil tooth discovered at Old Crow, Yukon, Canada. The specimen was found in sediment dated 1 million YBP, however the geological attribution of this sediment is questioned.
Slightly younger specimens were discovered at Cripple Creek Sump, Fairbanks, Alaska, in strata dated 810,000 YBP. Both discoveries point to an origin of these wolves in eastern Beringia during the Middle Pleistocene.
The Bering land bridge is a postulated route of human migration to the Americas from Asia about 20,000 years ago. An open corridor through the ice-covered North American Arctic was too barren to support human migrations before around 12,600 BP.
A study has indicated that the genetic imprints of only 70 of all the individuals who settled and traveled the land bridge into North America are visible in modern descendants.
This genetic bottleneck finding is an example of the founder effect and does not imply that only 70 individuals crossed into North America at the time; rather, the genetic material of these individuals became amplified in North America following isolation from other Asian populations.
Seagoing coastal settlers may also have crossed much earlier, but there is no scientific consensus on this point, and the coastal sites that would offer further information now lie submerged in up to a hundred metres of water offshore.
Land animals migrated through Beringia as well, introducing to North America species that had evolved in Asia, like mammals such as proboscideans and American lions, which evolved into now-extinct endemic North American species. Meanwhile, equids and camelids that had evolved in North America (and later became extinct there) migrated into Asia as well at this time.
A 2007 analysis of mtDNA found evidence that a human population lived in genetic isolation on the exposed Beringian landmass during the Last Glacial Maximum for approximately 5,000 years. This population is often referred to as the Beringian Standstill population. A number of other studies, relying on more extensive genomic data, have come to the same conclusion.
Genetic and linguistic data demonstrate that at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, as sea levels rose, some members of the Beringian Standstill Population migrated back into eastern Asia while others migrated into the Western Hemisphere, where they became the ancestors of the indigenous people of the Western Hemisphere.
Environmental selection on this Beringian Standstilll Population has been suggested for genetic variation in the Fatty Acid Desaturase gene cluster and the ectodysplasin A receptor gene. Using Y Chromosome data Pinotti et al. have estimated the Beringian Standstill to be less than 4600 years and taking place between 19.5 kya and 15 kya.
Biogeographical evidence demonstrates previous connections between North America and Asia. Similar dinosaur fossils occur both in Asia and in North America. For instance the dinosaur Saurolophus was found in both Mongolia and western North America. Relatives of Troodon, Triceratops, and even Tyrannosaurus rex all came from Asia.
Fossil evidence indicates an exchange of primates between North America and Asia around 55.8 million years ago. By 20 million years ago, evidence in North America shows a further interchange of mammalian species.
Some, like the ancient saber-toothed cats, have a recurring geographical range: Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America. The only way they could reach the New World was by the Bering land bridge. Had this bridge not existed at that time, the fauna of the world would be very different.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia
After the fall of Jerusalem, Ezekiel brought the promise anew that God would yet gather his sheep. Ezekiel lived at the close of an age. A little more than a century earlier, around 721 B.C., the Kingdom of Israel had come to its end at the hands of the Assyrians.
Its inhabitants had been carried into captivity and scattered among various countries. And then, in Ezekiel’s time, Babylonians, who had helped overthrow the Assyrians, had conquered Jerusalem.
In 593 B.C., while Lehi and his family were facing their trials in the Arabian wilderness and Jeremiah was contending with hostile forces in Jerusalem, Ezekiel was languishing in Babylonia. (He was one of the Jewish captives carried there earlier as surety that the Jews in their homeland would not rebel.) This was the year that Ezekiel was called by the Lord to give hope to captive souls.
The Kingdom of Judah wasn’t dead yet; it still had its own king, and many of its people still lived in their own land. But, chafing under Babylonian bonds and rejecting prophetic advice, they refused to pay their tribute. Within a few years, the temple, city walls, and homes of Jerusalem were burned and leveled. More citizens were carried away to Babylon, and those who remained soon fled to Egypt for security.
The Kingdom of Judah was no more. The promised land, north and south, was depopulated of Israelites, bringing to an end an extremely important era in Israelite history. This didn’t happen because God was unable to protect the Israelites.
He could have fought their battles and saved them from being oppressed, but instead, he chose to let them fall and suffer the consequences of their wickedness. (See Ezek. 8; Jer. 16:10–13; 1 Ne. 1:4, 13.) Ezekiel’s Message of Hope - As the fall of Jerusalem marked an important transition in the life of the Israelites, it also marked an important transition in Ezekiel’s prophecies. No longer did he call Jews to repentance to avoid being overthrown.
He addressed instead the questions that must have been on their minds now that their nation was no more. What future did they have now that they had offended God so grievously that he had allowed them to be driven from their land? Was he still their God? Were they still his chosen people?
And even if he were willing, could he gather people so widely dispersed as the Israelites were in Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, and elsewhere throughout the world?
News of the fall of Jerusalem (Ezek. 33:21) is the point at which one may see a transition taking place in Ezekiel’s prophecies. As this news sank into the exiles’ minds, making the prophesied dispersion a reality, Ezekiel was called to cast a beam of light on a future known only to God. His messages were messages of hope.
God would never abandon his people or his land, Ezekiel said. In days of old, Moses had foretold their dispersion and their subsequent gathering. (See Deut. 30:1–5.) But in their current situation, the words of Ezekiel offered a strong reaffirmation that the Lord would eventually fulfill His promises in regard to their gathering.
Ezekiel likened the exiled Israelites’ situation to that of scattered sheep. The scattering had taken place because their shepherds had been careless and had exploited the sheep. (See Ezek. 34:1–10.) But God himself would replace those careless shepherds with his constant care. He, as any good shepherd, would seek out the sheep, bind up their bruises, and bring them home again.
This metaphor of God as a compassionate shepherd provides background for understanding the many references Jesus made to Israel as lost sheep and to himself as the Good Shepherd. (See Matt. 18:12–14; John 10:11–18.) Christ is the shepherd both to the wandering individual and to His scattered people, and the message of hope in Ezekiel’s words applies both to the one lost sheep and to the straying flock.
A kind of national repentance might have saved the Kingdom of Judah, and that is what Ezekiel preached. But collective repentance is made up of many individual acts, and so Ezekiel’s words hold out a message of hope to the repentant individual in all times and in all places. If the wicked person will “turn from his sin, and do that which is lawful and right; …
“He shall surely live, he shall not die. “None of his sins that he hath committed shall be mentioned unto him.” (Ezek. 33:14–16.) God does not look back at what we were in the past when we improve our lives. He does not mention former misconduct we have repented of. That is, a dishonest person who repents and does honestly is regarded by the Lord as being honest because he is doing “that which is lawful and right.”
How reassuring for those of us who struggle to overcome the weaknesses of mortality to know that when we improve our lives through repentance and faith in the Savior’s Atonement, the Lord does not mention to us that we were anything less than what we have become. And, of course, if he doesn’t, neither should we—either to ourselves or to our neighbors.
The Wages of Sin - Since sinners, through repentance, can become saints, the converse is also true. Saints who walk through life doing good, but think they are good enough not to go astray, may die as sinners. And “the wages of sin is death.” (Rom. 6:23.) This means that whoever embarks on a virtuous life, but “turneth away from his righteousness, and committeth iniquity, and dieth in them; for his iniquity that he hath done shall he die.” (Ezek. 18:26.)
Like the past deeds of the repentant sinner, his past virtuous deeds shall not be mentioned to him. (See Ezek. 33:13.) No one can stockpile enough righteous deeds to entitle him to deviate or walk an evil path. The example of the highly favored King David comes to mind.
Ezekiel teaches that spiritual life after sin is possible only for those who repent of their foolishness. God’s promises, based on knowing the truth—in other words, knowing things as they really are—are the basis of rebuilding shattered lives. Those who repent demonstrate that they are greater than their sins. Their actions show their convictions, along with their hope, that they can return to the Lord, from whom they have become estranged.
The words of modern prophets bear out this hope. Joseph Smith explains that God is close when we are willing to turn fully to him. “There is never a time when the spirit is too old to approach God. All are within reach of pardoning mercy, who have not committed unpardonable sin.” (Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, sel. Joseph Fielding Smith, Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1938, p. 191.)
Similarly, Ezekiel taught that in the day of judgment, sin need not be weighed in the balance against us if we have repented of it.
The Day of Restoration
But what of a people who have strayed?
The Lord promised them: “I, even I, will both search my sheep, …
“and] deliver them out of all places where they have been scattered in the cloudy and dark day.
“And I will … gather them from the countries, and will bring them to their own land.” (Ezek. 34:11–13.)
One mustn’t read this prophecy as an indication that God loves one people more than another, or that he raises one people at the expense of another. We are all his children, and he is just. His purpose is to bless the earth. To those who listen to him, he gives his priesthood power and revelations so that they, in turn, may bless the nations. To this end, he gathers people.
It may try our patience to wait long enough through history to see how the gathering actually blesses all people, but that is part of faith. God loves all his children and brings all his works to fruition. When he is through, we will see how he blesses all the nations of the earth.
In that day, said Ezekiel, when the Lord’s purposes are to be accomplished, Israel will be converted to God by divine power. He will replace their stony heart with a heart of flesh. Said he: “A new heart also will I give you, …
“And I will put my spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes, and ye shall keep my judgments, and do them.
“And ye shall dwell in the land that I gave to your fathers; and ye shall be my people, and I will be your God.” (Ezek. 36:26–28, italics added.)
The final sentence—“ye shall be my people, and I will be your God”—expresses the ideal relationship, that of oneness between God and his people as was known in Enoch’s day when “the Lord came and dwelt with his people, and they dwelt in righteousness. …
“And the Lord blessed the land, and they were blessed upon the mountains, and upon the high places, and did flourish.
“And the Lord called his people Zion, because they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them.
“And Enoch … built a city that was called the City of Holiness, even Zion.” (Moses 7:16–19.)
The Valley of Dry Bones
In chapter 37 of Ezekiel, [Ezek. 37] other details of the Lord’s latter-day gathering are explained. Using the reality of the resurrection, the Lord shows Israel, whose members are scattered like the bones of a dismembered body, that he will reconstitute them into a living entity, just as he will reconstitute bones of dismembered bodies into living bodies. Thus, in this chapter, resurrection is both a metaphor and a reality.
This reality includes bringing resurrected Israelites into their land—even those who die in places far removed from the promised land. They, like Abraham, will be resurrected and gathered to their land, for the gathering is not only spatial—from the nations of the earth—but also temporal—from various periods of time. Abraham asked: “Lord God, how wilt thou give me this land for an everlasting inheritance?”
And the Lord answered, “Though thou wast dead, yet am I not able to give it thee?” Then the Lord showed Abraham the day of the Son of Man, how Christ would die and live again, and how Abraham would also live again. And the scriptures record of Abraham that “his soul found rest.” (JST, Gen. 15:9–12; italics added.)
To Ezekiel’s Israelites, whose two nations were dead, their people scattered abroad—to these people who seemed to have no hope of inheriting the land, the Lord extended the assurance he had given to Abraham: “I will open your graves … and bring you into the land of Israel.” (Ezek. 37:12.)
The Book of Mormon and the Gathering - Ezekiel understood very well that the key to the gathering of Israel would be the coming forth of the Book of Mormon, as Jesus explained to the Nephites. (3 Ne. 21:1–3, 7–8.) Both the Bible and the Book of Mormon were in the process of being prepared by God during Ezekiel’s ministry as major instruments to gather his people back to himself.
Both records have one message—to convince “Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God, manifesting himself to all nations.” (Book of Mormon title page.) This step is essential if people are to be gathered back to God. Hand in hand, these two records make this fact clear.
So when Ezekiel talked of gathering, he united two “sticks”—one symbolizing the record of Judah (the Bible) and the other symbolizing the record of Joseph (the Book of Mormon). For his models, he probably used two wax writing tablets, of the kind known to the Babylonians. (See Ensign, Feb. 1987, p. 4.)
When he joined these “sticks,” they became one record—one in his hand, even as the Bible and Book of Mormon would become one in the hand of the Lord to carry out his work. (See Ezek. 37:15–17.) Publication of the Book of Mormon made it possible for the two books to be united in testimony—and for the gathering work to begin.
A Gathering in the Heart - Ezekiel understood that the most important part of this work would be the gathering of Israel back to God himself. In no other way could the Lord become their God and they his people. His children must be gathered spiritually, or there would be no point in their being gathered physically.
The major evidence that this dramatic gathering and conversion have occurred will be the presence of God among his people. He will dwell in their midst: “My tabernacle also shall be with them: yea, I will be their God and they shall be my people.
“And the heathen [Gentiles] shall know that I the Lord do sanctify Israel, when my sanctuary shall be in the midst of them for evermore.” (Ezek. 37:27–28.)
This will happen after the Lord has defeated the forces of Gog allied against Israel. “And I will set my glory among the heathen, and all the heathen shall see my judgment that I have executed, and my hand that I have laid upon them.” (Ezek. 39:21.)
His great victory will bring home to Israel the awesome reality that he who brought Moses up out of the land of Egypt would also bring the children of Israel into their land in the latter days, helping them surmount every problem they would encounter. “So the house of Israel shall know that I am the Lord their God from that day and forward.” (Ezek. 39:22.)
Ezekiel was shown in glorious vision how Jerusalem will become the Lord’s city when Jehovah resides in the midst of the people there. Even its name will indicate his favor: “And the name of the city from that day shall be, The Lord is there.” (Ezek. 48:35.) Waters flowing from beneath the temple will go on to heal the Dead Sea, and trees growing along this river will provide medicine for the healing of illness. (Ezek. 47:1–12.)
In that day, the land will be divided among the tribes of Israel, as specified in chapters 47 and 48 of Ezekiel. [Ezek. 47–48] The allocation of space to Joseph in these verses might be seen as reflecting a principle, since additional information in the Book of Mormon, unavailable to Ezekiel, promises that a “remnant of the seed of Joseph” shall also have an inheritance in the Western Hemisphere. (See Ether 13:6–10.)
Ezekiel served magnificently, whether addressing the individual or the national need for hope. His description of the gathering of Israel shows how well God plans his work in order to bless the nations of the earth. But this ancient prophet also strengthens our faith by teaching us that God can work in our individual lives.
https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1990/09/ezekiel-prophet-of-hope?lang=eng
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Ezekiel, whose name means “strengthened by God,” grew up in Jerusalem, served as a priest in the temple and was among the second group of captives taken to Babylon along with King Jehoiachin. While in Babylon he became a prophet of God; he is the author of the Old Testament book that bears his name. Ezekiel's ministry began with condemnation and judgment of the nation Judah.
After the destruction of Jerusalem, Ezekiel’s prophecies speak of hope for the future. Ezekiel wanted to help the people learn from their failures. He announced impending judgment upon the nations that surrounded Judah and reestablished hope for the restoration of Israel. His vision of the valley of dry bones (Ezekiel 37) pictures new life being breathed into the nation, which will occur in the Millennial Reign of Christ on earth.
Ezekiel’s first vision was of God’s throne and included the four living creatures and whirling wheels. Ezekiel also had detailed visions of a new temple (Ezekiel 40–43), a restored Jerusalem (Ezekiel 48:30–35), the millennium (chapter 44), and the land in which God’s people will reside (Ezekiel 47:13–23). Israel and Judah will once again be restored to unity from the ends of the earth as God’s glory also returns and God dwells among His people.
These beautiful visions of Ezekiel concern both the immediate and the long-term plans of God. Ezekiel delivered God’s messages with straightforward language that everyone could understand, whether they listened or not (Ezekiel 2:7).
Ezekiel himself received a warning from God that, if he did not faithfully warn of the punishment for not following God, he would be held accountable for the blood of those who died in their sins (Ezekiel 33:8–9). He did not hesitate in his mission and steadfastly followed God’s instructions. Ezekiel had a passionate view of judgment and hope, and he reflected God’s own sorrow over the people’s sins.
The prophet experienced considerable opposition during his own lifetime, yet he doggedly expressed God’s desire that the wicked not die but turn from their wicked ways and live. His periodic speechlessness during his early years was broken when God empowered him to speak, and his tongue was loosened to speak the longest passage of sustained hope in the Bible.
The burning, chopping, and scattering of his hair represented the fall of Jerusalem and the bringing back of God’s remnant (chapter 5). The hopeful words climax in the promise of everlasting possession of the land, an everlasting Davidic prince, an everlasting covenant, and an everlasting sanctuary in Israel (Ezekiel 11:16-21).
He leaps ahead to a time after Israel has been restored to the mysterious invasion from the north that will be brought by Yahweh against Israel, but then will be utterly defeated. This demonstrates that no enemy nation will ever invade the Holy Land again with success, and the glory of the God of Israel returns, entering through the east gate of the temple Ezekiel envisions.
Ezekiel has shown all Christians that we are to be obedient to God's call on our lives. God told Ezekiel to groan with a broken heart and bitter grief for the coming judgment, and through his dramatic book, Ezekiel is telling us the very same thing. This judgment is coming! It will surely take place, declares the Sovereign Lord! We, too, can warn others and share with them the good news of salvation in Jesus Christ.
https://www.gotquestions.org/amp/life-Ezekiel.html
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How was it possible that Manchu, a small Jurchen tribe, were able to conquer and rule for centuries the big Chinese Empire? You don’t necessarily need a large population to conquer a bigger country. If your military is powerful, you can conquer a bigger country. Just like British with their superior weapons colonized India and defeated Qing China during the Opium Wars.
Now in the case of Manchus, Ming Dynasty had a bigger population, a bigger economy, a bigger military, and relatively superior technology( bigger cannons, more muskets, powerful navy, etc.). But Manchus were still able to overcome it. You have to explain this from a military and political perspective. You defeat the bigger opponent ( Ming)in a crucial battle/campaign or series of crucial battles/campaigns.
Bigger opponent fails to recover afterwards and starts to disintegrate. Bigger opponent crumbles within, by internal rebellions ( Li Zicheng Rebellion) and massive defections to your side( Wu Sangui at Shanhaiguan among others).
You( Manchus) have a progressive policy, where you embrace Ming culture and government, as well as defecting elites, multiplying your strength and hastening the downfall of your opponent ( Ming ).
Jurchens ( later Manchus under Hongtaici) defeated the Ming expeditionary force at the crucial Battle of Sarhu from 14 April to 18 April 1619, after which Ming never really recovered( meaning it could not send another sizeable force against Jurchens).
So how did smaller Jurchen army ( estimate around 60,000) defeat the bigger Ming army( estimate around 130,000 including Joson allied troops) sent to Sarhu? Several reasons.
1. Better commanders- Nurhaci and his commanders rose from a minor tribe in unifying the Jurchen( later Manchu under his son Hongtaici) tribes through a succession of wars. Ming army was led by Yang Hao, who had been defeated by Japanese in Korea and who lied about his defeat. Ming commanders under Yang Hao were not co-operating with other, but rushed to the battlefield independently, greedy for personal glory instead of the unified victory.
2. Better trained soldiers-Jurchen soldiers fought in continuous tribal wars. They led a semi-nomadic lifestyles where they grew up with horses, archery, and hunting. They were organized into the Eight Banner System under Nurhaci.
This was a military political system, where they could easily be mobilized for war at a moment’s notice. Also, they had an incentive system: they were awarded spoils of conquest, such as land, booty, slaves, and other things. They could become rich through war.
Jurchen cavalry, like this nineteenth century soldier here, many had grown up since childhood through their semi-nomadic lifestyles hunting with archery on horsebacks. Later swelled into the Eight Banner Army, which gradually incorporated defecting Mongols, Ming troops with musketeers, cannoneers, infantry, and navy after the Battle of Sarhu.
On the other hand, Ming soldiers were conscripts, who were paid a salary. Not all of them had battle field experiences. They were also recruits who were trained to be soldiers, unlike the Jurchens, who knew how to ride a horse and use archery since childhood.
3. Better tactics-Nurhaci decided to defeat the Ming in piecemeal, exploiting the lack of cohesion between Ming armies sent against him. In this way, Manchus had achieved a local superiority in numbers against each separate Ming army they had faced.
In addition, Jurchens faced Ming army in their home turf, where they were very familiar with the terrain. Ming army was unfamiliar with the terrain they were attacking. The Battle of Sarhu took place near Hetuala, the first capital of Nurhaci.
Du Song’s Western Route army of 32,000 arrived in Sarhu Lake on April 14th. That night, he camped at the mountain and led about 10,000 of the force against Jurchen fort at Jabiyan(界藩城). While deceiving Du Song’s detachment at Jabiyan, Nurhaci took most of his forces( 45,000) to concentrated attack on the main camp at Sarhu.
Sand storm was blowing against the Ming campsite and Ming army had to light up the camp with camp fires in the darkness, which allowed Jurchens to bombard with arrows the direction of fires, which resulted in Ming massacre.
Meanwhile, Du Song found out that Jabiyan was a ruse and it was only guarded by some 500 Jurchen troops. Du Song was ambushed by 15,000 Jurchen troops under Hongtaici. While struggling to fight off the Jurchens, they were attacked by Nurhaci’s victorious returning main army. Du Song was killed in the battle.
On 16th of April, Northern Route Army of 30,000 under Ma Lin marched and camped at Siyanggiyan, up north. Nurhaci’s forces surrounded the camp and made a surprise attack with rapid cavalry charges.
A story says Ma Lin’s cannons and musketeers only fired a one round before Jurchen cavalry fell upon them. One of the co-commanders under Ma Lin, Fan Zhongyan, became scared and fled from the battlefield. Northern Route army was routed and Ma Lin escaped.
On 18 of April, Eastern Route army of 30,000 under Liu Ting, augmented by Joson forces under Gang Hongrip, marched directly against Hetuala. His armies still did not know that Du Song and Ma Lin’s forces had been defeated. They were ambushed by Jurchen forces at Abudali Pass and Liu Ting was killed. Gang Hongrip surrendered to Jurchen forces.
After hearing the defeats of three route armies, rest of Ming forces withdrew. Yang Hao, the supreme commander was blamed and executed for the defeat by the court.
4. Speed- This is very important in the execution of war. Jurchen army was mainly cavalry. While Ming was a mix of cavalry and infantry. Speed affords multiple advantages to the side, who is able to execute this. They can split and recombine their armies as it fits( although it takes a lot of coordination) and maneuver and attack side, rear, or wherever they want. Speedy charge also disaffects the opponent, who is much slower.
In a battle against thousands and tens of thousands troops, involving wide area of land, you can not possibly see everything and everyone, besides the weather ( sandstorm, night, fog), smog, and terrain obstructions. With superior tactics and speed, you can fool the opponent and flank and surprise them at vulnerable sides and even rear.
But speed should not be confused with haste. Ming armies were hasty, which made them exhausted, instead of speedy. Like Du Song’s Western Route Army rushed across the Hun River which had rapid currents, resulting in casualties and exhausting his men and horses before even reaching the battlefield.
Part of the reasons why Ming army had such poor generals probably had to do with their corrupt political system, which sold offices by bribery and forgave the incompetent liars like Yang Hao( earlier in Joson).
The emperor Wanli left the administration under the control of eunuchs for nearly twenty years. Maybe because Wanli was fed up with greedy and corrupt officials.
But he was a mediocre emperor, who had shunned his imperial responsibility to be tough with corruption. Wanli’s succesors were young emperors who were controlled or swayed by eunuchs as well.
The last emperor Chongzhen, partly retrieved the imperial power from the eunuchs. But he too was deceived by their plot and executed Yuan Chonghuan, the most capable Ming general at the time on the suspicion of treason.
As a result of the defeat at the Battle of Sarhu, it compounded the internal problems of corruption, famine, fiscal and social issues of the Ming. Large numbers of Ming officials and troops defected to Manchus, due to the pro-defection policies of Manchus( which began aggressively under Hongtaici, the second leader of Manchus and the first emperor of Qing).
Massive internal rebellion by the disaffected populace, the biggest being Li Zicheng, finally brought down the Ming Dynasty in 1644 ( Emperor Chongzhen’s suicide). It allowed Manchus to defeat Li Zicheng and fill the power vacuum.
After the capture of Beijing by the Manchu Qing Dynasty, it was only a matter of time the rest of country( including the Southern Ming resistance) to be unified under the new dynasty.
https://www.quora.com/How-was-it-possible-that-Manchu-a-small-Jurchen-tribe-were-able-to-conquer-and-rule-for-centuries-the-big-Chinese-Empire
Lê Lợi (Vietnamese: [le lə̂ːjˀ]; c. 1384 – 1433), posthumously known by his temple name Lê Thái Tổ, was emperor of Vietnam and founder of the Later Lê dynasty.[1] Lê Lợi is among the most famous figures of Vietnamese history and one of its greatest heroes.
Lê Lợi was the youngest of three sons. His father was an aristocratic nobleman in Lam Sơn (northern Vietnam). The town was in a newly colonized area of Vietnam which would eventually be called Thanh Hóa Province.
Lam Son had been established by Lê Lợi's great-grandfather Le Hoi sometime in the 1330s. His exact date of birth is not certain, but 1384 is generally agreed upon by historians.[citation needed] Lam Son was on the frontier of Vietnam, and as a result it was further and hence more free from government control.[citation needed]
This was a troubled time in Vietnam's history as the Hồ dynasty in 1400 finally displaced the Trần dynasty and set about reforming the empire. Hồ rule was short lived as members of the Trần dynasty petitioned for intervention from the Yongle Emperor of the Chinese Ming Empire to the north.
He responded by sending a powerful army south into Vietnam and vanquished the Hồ. Upon failing to find a Trần heir, the Ming government chose to re-establish sovereignty over Vietnam, as was the case in the days of the Tang dynasty, some 500 years prior.
The Ming government enjoyed some support from the Vietnamese, at least in the capital of Thăng Long, but their efforts to assert control in the surrounding countryside were met with stiff resistance. The Vietnamese claim that the Ming military stole valuable artifacts from Vietnam such as gems, jade, golden pieces of art as well as books.
Lê Lợi himself said that he chose the path of revolt against China's brutal government when he personally witnessed the destruction of a Vietnamese village by Ming forces. Lê Lợi began his campaign against the Ming Empire on the day after Tết (New Year) February 1418.
https://www.facebook.com/annataylormusicangel/
He was supported by several prominent families from his native Thanh Hóa, most famously were the Trịnh and the Nguyễn families. Initially, Lê Lợi campaigned on the basis of restoring the Trần to power.
A relative of the Trần emperor was chosen as the figurehead of the revolt but within a few years, the Trần pretender was removed and the unquestioned leader of the revolt was Lê Lợi himself, under the name "Pacifying King" (Binh Dinh Vuong).
Temple name
Vietnamese alphabet
Lê Thái Tổ
Hán-Nôm
黎太祖
Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) when it was under Ming occupation (1407–1427)
The revolt enjoyed patchy initial success. While Lê Lợi was able to operate in Thanh Hóa, he was, for 2–3 years, unable to muster the military forces required to defeat the Ming army in open battle. As a result, he waged a type of guerrilla war against the large and well organized Ming army.
One famous story from this time is about the heroism of one of Lê Lợi's commanders, Lê Lai. One time during the revolt, Lê Lợi's forces had been surrounded by Ming forces on the top of a mountain. Lê Lai devised a plan that would allow Lê Lợi and the main bulk of the force to escape.
...
He pretended to be Lê Lợi to divert the Ming army's attention by dressing himself in Lê Lợi's attire and lead a kamikaze-like charge down to attack the enemy. During the battle, Lê Lợi was able to escape.
Besides fighting Ming forces, Lê Lợi and his army also had to fight against ethnic minorities' forces whom the Ming government bribed known collectively as Ai Lao (Laos) . Although there were many difficulties, Lê Lợi's army was able to suppress Ai Lao multiple times. However, because his force was not strong enough at the time, he had to lurk in the forests or mountains of Thanh Hoa province.
Often due to lack of food supplies, Lê Lợi had to order the killing of army horses and elephants for use as food.[citation needed] In one particularly dangerous situation in 1422, Lê Lợi made peace with the Ming army. But in 1423 when his forces were built up better, Lê Lợi broke the peace agreement when the Ming army captured and killed his envoy.
By 1427, the revolt had spread throughout Vietnam and the original Ming army of occupation had been ground down and destroyed. The new Ming ruler, the Xuande Emperor, wished to end the war with Vietnam, but his advisors urged one more effort to subdue the rebellious province. The result was a massive army (some 100,000 strong) being sent into Vietnam.
The final campaign did not start well for the Ming forces. Lê Lợi's forces met the Ming army in battle but quickly staged a mock retreat. The Ming general, Liu Sheng (Liễu Thăng in Vietnamese), urging his troops forward, was cut off from the main part of his army, captured and executed by the Vietnamese.
Then, by sending false reports of dissent within the ranks of Lê Lợi's own generals, the Ming army was lured into Hanoi where it was surrounded and destroyed in a series of battles. A Vietnamese historian, Trần Trọng Kim, told that the Ming army lost over 90,000 men (60,000 killed in battle and 30,000 captured).
By Nguyen Chich tactic, 1424 Lê Lợi decided to march his army to Nghe An plain. On the way, Lam Son army captured Da Cang fortress, beaten back Cam Banh forces, a commander who worked for the Ming.
Lam Son forces attacked Tra Long garrison. Ming general Chen Zhi led reinforcement from Nghe An to Tra Long to rescue Cam Banh but was beaten back by Lam Son forces. Besieged by Lê Lợi, with Chen Zhi unable to rescue, Cam Banh eventually surrendered.
Lê Lợi sent Dinh Liet with a detachment to attack Nghe An, and the same time he took the main part of the army. Zhen Zhi was repeatedly defeated and had to retreat inside the Nghe An citadel.
Li An, Fang Zheng from Dong Quan came to Nghe An to rescue Chen Zhi, while Chen also moved out his forces from the castle to join force with them. However the Ming forces were defeated, Chen Zhi had to retreat to Dong Quan, An and Chinh withdraw in Nghe An citadel.
In May 1425, Lê Lợi commanded Dinh Le to attack Dien Chau. Ming army lost and retreated to Dong Do (Thanh Hoa). Then Lê Lợi also sent Le Sat, Le Nhan Chu. Le Trien supported Dinh Le for attack Tay Do, Ming army must retreat inside the castle.
Lê Lợi on one hand surrounded Nghe An and Tay Do, and on the other hand sent Tran Nguyen Han, Doan No, Le Da Bo to attack Tan Binh, Thuan Hoa. Ming general Nham Thang was defeated. Then Lê Lợi sent Le Ngan, Le Van An to support Tran Nguyen Han. Ming army had to retreat.
As a result of these victories, from the end of 1425, Lê Lợi was in control all land from Thanh Hoa to the south, and besieged all the Ming's forces in the region.
On 1426 August, Lê Lợi divided his grand army into 3 parts. Pham Van Xao, Do Bi, Trinh Kha, and the expert swordsman Le Trien went North west, while the feared Luu Nhan Chu, and wise Bui Bi headed North East.
The cavalry commander Dinh Le, and trusted lieutenant Nguyen Xi moved on Dong Quan. From the wilderness, Le Trien approached Dong Quan, when he ambushed Tran Tri and defeated Tri.
Meanwhile, a Ming army was incoming from Yunnan. Trien divided forces and sent Pham Van Xao, and Trinh Kha on a route to intercept, and combined Doanh Le, and Nguyen Xi, into a siege army to attack Dong Quan. Pham Van Xao defeated the Yunnan reinforcements.
Van Nam forces fled and entrenched at the Xuong Giang rampart. Tran Tri's supply lines were threatened, and he sought Ly An reinforcements at Nghe An. Ly An, and Phuong Chinh commanded Thai Thuc to the keep Nghe An rampart, and sent forces to rescue Dong Quan. Lê Lợi commanded Le Van An's elite troops to surrounded the rampart, while he himself moved the main forces to the north.
The Ming Emperor sent Wang Zong, and Ma Ying to the rescue. They combined all available Dong Quan forces and became 100.000 strong, then began a drive to Phuong Chinh. Le Trien and the infamous thief Do Bi defeated Ma Qi at Tu Liem, and attacked Fang forces headlong. Fang and Ma fled and combined with the Wang Zong forces at Co So. Le Trien attacked Wang, but he had already prepared.
Thien lost, retreated back to Cao Bo and sought help from Nguyen Xi. Dinh Le, Nguyen Xi took their forces to Tot Dong Chut Dong to prepare an ambush. They know Wang Zong would divide forces into two parts and raid Le Trien, so they enticed Wang to place an ambush force.
Wang's army lost heavily, with Tran Hiep, Ly Luong and 50,000 soldiers killed, and 10,000 captured. fled and entrenched at Dong Quan. Lê Lợi got the victorious news and then sent Tran Nguyen Han, and Bui Bi to divide forces, and drive two ways towards Dong Quan.
Vuong Thong was lost. Lê Lợi wanted Ming forces to withdraw fast. Meanwhile, court scholars found the reason the Ming government wanted to help the Tran enemies defeat Ho, and sent to Lê Lợi a proclamation made which Tran descendants to become Emperor.
Vuong Thong agreed to the mutual agreement in outward appearance, but knew Lê Lợi held a plan up his sleeve. After Lê Lợi showed his hand, Vuong Thong made his move and broke the agreement. After a break in mutual agreement, Lê Lợi sent some generals to attack and occupy key forts such as: Dieu Dieu, Tam Giang, Xuong Giang. They were occupied soon after.
At the beginning of 1427, he moved his troop to Nhi river, and attacked Dong Quan. Lê Lợi created strict troop rule to assure the people that his troops would not be a threat to them. Ming general Thai Thuc surrendered and handed over Nghe An.
Lê Lợi demand foreign minister Nguyễn Trãi write a letter, insisting others generals to surrender. When Lam Son's garrison force at Dong Quan appeared weak, Ming cavalry attacked suddenly. Le Trien died at Tu Liem. Dinh Le. Nguyen Xi was captured at Thanh Tri. After that Dinh Le was killed, Nguyen Xi fled.
At the end of 1427, the Ming Emperor sent reinforcements to rescue Vuong Thong. Lieu Thang took 100,000 soldiers from Guangxi; Moc Thanh with 50,000 ones from Yun Nan. They were generals who participated in the battle with Ho and Tran dynasty. According to some historians, 150,000 soldiers were magnified in number; in fact, the number was 120,000 and the main forces were belonged to Lieu Thang.
Heard this information, Lê Lợi and the generals wanted to attack and occupy Dong Quan immediately. However they listened to Nguyễn Trãi's advice, attacking rampart was a bad solution because the Ming forces in the rampart were so crowded and food was full.
So Lê Lợi and generals decided to attack reinforcements first to discourage Ming forces at Dong Quan. At first, Lê Lợi commanded to move the residents at Lạng Giang, Bắc Giang, Quy Hoa, Tuyên Quang to segregate Ming troops.
He knew Lieu Thang kept the main forces, so he sent Le Sat, Le Nhan Chu, Le Van Linh, Dinh Liet to wait at Chi Lang, and the same time commanded Le Van An, Le Ly to take alternative forces to support. With Moc Thanh ‘s forces, he knew Thanh was an experienced general and will be waiting for Lieu Thang's results before taking actions, so Lê Lợi commanded Pham Van Xao and Trinh Kha entrenched all time.
The border general, Tran Luu, faked losing and ran away from Nam Quan gate to Luu gate and then moved to Chi Lang. On 18 September at lunar calendar, Thang followed to Chi Lang after. Thinking Tran Luu have lost continuous, Thang was too optimistic and just took 100 cavalries for come after. On 20 September, Thang was killed by Tran Luu and Le Sat ‘s forces and they shed all the remaining troop.
All Lê Lợi's generals got the opportunities and attacked Minh troops, killed 10,000 soldiers, cut Luong Minh, Ly Khanh committed suicide. Some remain Ming generals such as Hoang Thuc, Thoi Tu tried to retreat at Xuong Giang but they came there and knew the rampart was occupied. They forced to gather troops in empty field.
Lê Lợi sent Tran Nguyen Hang to block Ming's food transporting way, sent Pham Van, Nguyen Xi supported Le Sat and get close to attack, killed 50,000 Ming soldiers at Xuong Giang. Hoang Thuc with 30.000 Ming soldiers were arrested, Thoi Tu did not surrender and was killed. Moc Thanh heard Lieu Thang was killed so he retreated and ran away. Pham Van Xao, Trinh Kha followed, killed 10,000 soldiers, arrested 1,000 ones and horses.
In 1427, after 10 years of war, Vietnam regained its independence and the Ming Empire officially acknowledged Vietnam as an independent state. Lê Lợi took the throne and was declared Emperor of Đại Việt (大越).
According to a Ming report, Le Bi (黎秘), the chief eunuch of Lê Lợi and 10,000 Vietnamese were killed after Ming forces crushed and defeated their invasion in 1427 of a Chinese town. Lê Lợi's proclamation of independence reflected the Sino-Vietnamese tensions as well as Vietnamese pride and patriotism:
Our Great Viet is a country where prosperity
abounds. Where civilization reigns supreme.
Its mountains, its rivers, its frontiers are its own;
Its customs are distinct, in North and South.
Trieu, Dinh, Ly and Tran
Created our Nation,
Whilst Han T'ang, Sung and Yuan
Ruled over Theirs.
Over the Centuries,
We have been sometimes strong, and sometimes weak,
But never yet have we been lacking in heroes.
Of that let our history be the proof."
Lê Lợi formally established the Lê dynasty as the Xuande Emperor of the Ming Empire officially recognized Lê Lợi as the new ruler of Vietnam. In return, Lê Lợi sent diplomatic messages to the Ming imperial court, promising Vietnam's loyalty as a vassal state of China and cooperation.
The Ming imperial court accepted this arrangement, much as they accepted the vassal status of Korea under the Joseon dynasty. The Chinese largely left Vietnam alone for the next 500 years, intervening only about once every hundred years.
Lê Lợi embarked on a significant reorganization of the Vietnamese government, clearly based on the Confucian system of government which was developed by the Chinese Tang and Song dynasties. He also elevated his longtime comrades and generals such as Nguyễn Trãi, Tran Nguyen Han, Lê Sát, Pham Van Sao, and Trịnh Khả to high official rank.
The Le government rebuilt the infrastructure of Vietnam: roads, bridges, canals. Land distribution were rewarded to soldiers that contributed in the war against the Ming Empire. New money currency was minted and new laws and reforms were passed. The system of selecting government administrators by examination was restored and exams were held at regular intervals throughout Lê Lợi's reign.
From 1430 to 1432, Lê Lợi and his army fought a set of campaigns in the hills to the west of the coastal area. Then, in 1433, he became sick and his health declined. On his deathbed he appointed Lê Sát as the regent for his second son, who would rule after him as Lê Thái Tông.
Internal palace politics quickly decimated the ranks of Lê Lợi's trusted counselors, Trần Nguyên Hãn committed suicide when he was being taken to the capital for investigating his suspected betrayal, Phạm Văn Xảo was executed in 1432 and Lê Sát, who ruled as regent for five years, was executed in 1438.
Nguyễn Trãi was killed in 1442 (it was claimed he was involved in or responsible for the death of Lê Thái Tông). Only Trịnh Khả survived to an old age and even he was executed in 1451.
Many legends and stories were told about Lê Lợi. The most famous story concerns his magical sword. Much like King Arthur and his sword Excalibur, Lê Lợi was said to have a magic sword of wondrous power.
One story tells that he obtained the sword, inscribed with the words 'The Will of Heaven' (Thuận Thiên) from the Dragon King (Vietnamese: Long Vương), a demi-god to the local people, who decided to lend his sword to Lê Lợi. But there was a catch: the sword did not come straight to him in one piece.
It was split into two parts: a blade and a sword hilt. First, in Thanh Hóa province, there was a fisherman named Lê Thận, who was not related to Lê Lợi in any way. One night, his fishing net caught something heavy. Thinking of how much money he would get for this big fish, he became very excited.
However, his excitement soon turned into disappointment when he saw that his catch was a long, thin piece of metal which had somehow become entangled to the net. He threw it back into the water, and recast the net at a different location. When he pulled the net in, the metal piece had found its way back into the net.
He picked it up and threw it far away with all its strength. The third time the fishing net came up, the same thing happened, the metal piece was once again caught in the net. Bewildered, he brought his lamp closer and carefully examined the strange object.
Only then did he notice that it was the missing blade of a sword. He took the blade home and not knowing what to do with it, put it in the corner of his house. Some years later, Lê Thận joined the rebel army of Lê Lợi, where he quickly rose in ranks.
Once, the general visited Lê Thận's home. Lê Thận's house lacked lighting, so everything was dark. But as though it was sensing the presence of Lê Lợi, the blade at the corner of the house suddenly emitted a bright glow.
Lê Lợi held up the blade and saw two words manifesting before his very eye: Thuận Thiên (Will of Heaven). With Lê Thận's endorsement, Lê Lợi took the blade with him.
One day, while on the run from the enemy, Lê Lợi saw a strange light emanating from the branches of a banyan tree. He climbed up and there he found a hilt of a sword, encrusted with precious gems. Remembering the blade he found earlier, he took it out and placed it into the hilt.
The fit was perfect. Believing that the Heaven had entrusted him with the great cause of freeing the land, Lê Lợi took up arms and rallied people under his banner.
For the next few years, the magic sword brought him victory after another. His men no longer had to hide in the forest, but aggressively penetrated many enemy camps, captured them and seized their granaries. The sword helped them push back the enemy, until Vietnam was once again free from Chinese rule.
Lê Lợi ascended the throne in 1428, ending his 10-year campaign, and reclaimed independence for the country. The stories claim Lê Lợi grew very tall when he used the sword and it gave him the strength of many men. Other stories say that the sword blade and the sword hilt came together from different places, the blade fished out of a lake, the hilt found by Lê Lợi himself.
The stories largely agree on what happened to the sword: One day, not long after the Chinese had accepted Vietnam as independent, Lê Lợi was out boating on a lake in Hanoi. The golden turtle advanced toward the boat and the king, then with a human voice, it asked him to return the magic sword to his master, Long Vương (Dragon King), who lived under the water.
Suddenly it became clear to Lê Lợi that the sword was only lent to him to carry out his duty, but now it must be returned to its rightful owner, lest it corrupt him.
Lê Lợi drew the sword out of its scabbard and lobbed it towards the turtle. With great speed, the turtle opened its mouth and snatched the sword from the air with its teeth. It descended back into the water, with the shiny sword in its mouth .
Lê Lợi then acknowledged the sword had gone back to the Long Vương (Dragon King)and caused the lake to be renamed 'The Lake of the Returned Sword' (Hoan Kiem Lake) located in present-day Hanoi.
Countless poems and songs were written about Lê Lợi, both during his lifetime and in later years. Lê Lợi is looked upon as the perfect embodiment of the just, wise, and capable leader.
All future Vietnamese kings were measured against the standard of Lê Lợi and most were found wanting. Every town in Vietnam has one of the major streets named after Lê Lợi, but in Hanoi the name is Lê Thái Tổ Street.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AA_L%E1%BB%A3i
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