Much of what is known about Phoenicia under Persia come from the Greek historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus. According to Herodotus, Phoenicia formed a part of Persia’s Fifth Satrapy, which included Cyprus, Palestine, and Syria.
This event is listed on the Bible Timeline Poster with World History at 483 BC. It was the Eber-Nari district in the book Ezra (5:3), and this portion of the Near East was inherited by the Persians from the Neo-Babylonian empire.
Phoenicia was Persia’s ally and vassal during the reign of the Cyrus the Great. It seemed that Cyrus saw a campaign in the Levant was unnecessary. It was too far from his capital of Susa and he was busy with wars against Persia’s neighbors during the first years of his reign.
He did not send Persian troops nor governors into the area but the citizens of the Fifth Satrapy needed to pay tribute to him. According to the Bible, Cyrus’ most important act was to set the Jews free from Babylonian captivity and allow them to rebuild the city of Jerusalem.
Phoenicia and Persia both benefited from this alliance. This friendly relationship between the two continued to the reign of Cambyses. Persia did not have a navy at that time, so Phoenicia provided the ships the Empire needed.
Cambyses conquered Egypt with the help of the Phoenician ships and planned to attack Carthage, but the Phoenicians refused to help Cambyses with this campaign as Carthage was a Phoenician colony. Cambyses was not willing to continue without the help of the Phoenician navy so he ended this conquest.
Wars between Persia and Greece were frequent during the reign of later Persian kings, but the Persians could always count on the Phoenician navy to help them. Xerxes I launched an attack against the Greek army. In the Battle of Salamis, the Phoenicians engineered a floating bridge across the Hellespont (Dardanelles) so the whole Persian army could march to mainland Greece.
“A naval action during the siege of Tyre in South Lebanon (350 BC). “ - The Battle of Salamis did not go well for the Persians, and the Phoenicians were blamed by Xerxes for the defeat. He beheaded some Phoenician captains, so the rest abandoned him and sailed back to their own land.
For the next 15 years, they did not take part in any Persian campaigns. However, in 465 BC the Phoenicians once again supported the Persians against the Greeks. They continued to support Persia until the empire’s decline. In 366 BC, the Persian Empire was on the verge of decline when Phoenicia rebelled along with the Anatolian provinces/satrapies by refusing to pay tribute. Egypt also seized the chance to rebel against Persian rule, but both rebellions failed.
In 351 BC, the Phoenicians once again declared their independence from Persia, this was led by Tennes, the king of Sidon. Many Persians who lived in Sidon and Tyre were either killed or driven off from the Phoenician cities. This angered Artaxerxes III (Ochus), and he raised his army to attack Phoenicia.
The Phoenician king stopped the rebellion when he saw the powerful Persian army, and he was killed later by Artaxerxes for leading the revolt. The Phoenicians were disappointed with the result of the rebellion, but they continued with their trade and domination in the Mediterranean.
https://amazingbibletimeline.com/blog/phoenicia-subject-to-persia/
When the Indo-Europeans called Aryans arrived in the Indus Valley they were illiterate. They enjoyed gambling and they drank and sang around their campfires. And like other pastoral people, they were storytellers.
They had sacred hymns, myths and oral history – stories that expressed their desire to please the gods. Like the Hebrews, they had a father god of the heaven, sky and atmosphere: Dyaus Pitar (sky father). They had a male god of thunder and rain called Indra, who also was a god of that other disturbance: war. Indra was also called the "breaker of forts."
And Indra was what the men thought a man should be: a warrior with courage, strength and energy who, like they, enjoyed drinking and making war. They had a god called Agni who was fire. They believed that Agni hungrily devoured the animals that they sacrificed in their rituals of burning. These sacrifices were performed by priests to obtain from their gods the gifts of children, success in war, wealth, health, longevity, food, drink or anything else that contributed to their happiness.
These Indo-European speaking people had a hymn about creation. It described the world as created, of course, by something they understood: birth. They believed that their father god, Dyaus Pitar, the embodiment of sky, had mated with his own daughter, the goddess that was earth.
They were creative in their storytelling and a later version of their creation theory developed, as follows: In the beginning was nothing, neither heaven nor earth nor space in between. Then non-being became spirit and said: "Let me be!" He warmed himself, and from this was born fire. He warmed himself further, and from this was born light.
The Indo-European speakers had a story that described humanity as having been created with virtue and everlasting life. According to this story, the gods were concerned that humanity would become gods like themselves, and to guard against this the gods plotted humanity's downfall. The gods talked Dyaus Pitar into creating a woman who lusted after sensual pleasures and who aroused sexual desires in men.
According to this story, the world had become overcrowded because humankind lived forever like the gods. So Dyaus Pitar decided to make humankind mortal, and he created the goddess Death – not a goddess who ruled over death, but death herself. This creation of mortality for humankind pleased the gods, for it left them separate and of a higher rank than humans.
According to this story, Dyaus Pitar proclaimed that he did not create the goddess Death from anger. And the goddess Death was at first reluctant to carry out the task assigned her, but she finally did so while weeping.
Her tears were diseases that brought death at an appropriate time. To create more death, the goddess Death created desire and anger in people – emotions that led to their killing each other.
Hindu Scripture - The Vedas - Hindus were to claim that Hindu scripture was composed sometime around 3000 BCE by several sages in direct contact with their god, Krishna.
They would claim that there is no evidence that outsiders – Aryans – invaded the Indus Valley and brought Hindu scripture with them. They blame the notion of this invasion on Christian scholars from the 19th century.
When writing spread to the Aryans is not known. But after it arrived some Brahmins (priests) considered it a sacrilege to change from communicating their religion orally.
Some other Brahmins supported the innovation, and they put traditional Aryan stories into writing, in what became known as the Vedas – Veda meaning wisdom.
The Vedas have been described as reflecting a rural lifestyle of the Aryans as opposed to the more urban culture of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization.
The Vedas became wisdom literature, a literature that Hindus considered an infallible source of timeless, revealed truth. The most important of the Vedas was the Rig Veda, which consisted of hymns or devotional incantations of 10,562 written lines in ten books.
Another Veda, the Yajur Veda, focused less on devotional incantations and more on sacrificial procedures as a means of pleasing the gods. A third Veda, the Sama Veda, was mainly concerned with the god Indra.
Indra was now seen as the god that had created the cosmos, the ruler of the atmosphere, and the god of thunderbolts and rain – Dyaus Pitar having diminished in importance.
Also mentioned in the Sama Veda were other gods of the sky and atmosphere: Varuna, guardian of the cosmic order; Agni, the god of fire; and Surya, the sun. A fourth Veda, the Atharya Veda, was a collection of 730 hymns, totaling six thousand stanzas. It contained prescriptions for prayer, rituals for curing diseases, expiations against evils, protections against enemies and sorcerers; and it contained prescriptions for creating charms for love, health, prosperity, influence, and a long life. Among the Vedas were descriptions of funeral rites that included cremation, and there were descriptions of lengthy and solemn rituals for marriage.
The Vedas implied that humanity is basically good, and, in contrast to the view of sin in West Asia, sin among the Hindus was viewed as a force from outside oneself – an invader.
Hinduism's Vedas saw evil as the work of demons that might take the form of a human or some other creature, which could be removed by the prayers and rituals of priests.
http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/religion-india.htm
Hunt was born a Mormon, but is now a born-again Christian. He lives in Australia with his second wife and has six children. The first two children from his first marriage are already adults. Hunt and his second wife, Julie, met in a reggae club around 1994 and have four children.
In December 2014 Hunt's older brother John committed suicide at the age of 44. In August 2015, Hunt became a vegan after viewing undercover video footage of the insides of a factory farm.
On his Facebook page, where he posted the video, he captioned, "I'm going vegan, hate this". However, on 7 July 2016, Hunt stated that he has not gone completely vegan due to the time demands of the sport, but is a vegetarian.
Auckland's UFC team and Game of Thrones star Jason Momoa (Khal Drogo) performed "Haka - a traditional war cry, dance or challenge from the Maori people from New Zealand" to cheer and support Hunt on his upcoming fight against Derrick Lewis.
Mark Richard Hunt (born 23 March 1974) is a New Zealand mixed martial artist and former kickboxer of Samoan descent,[4] currently living in Sydney, Australia. Hunt competes in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) and was the winner of the 2001 K-1 World Grand Prix.
He is known as "King of Walk-Offs" due to his popularization of the technique of walking away and stopping attacks before the referee officially ends the match.
Hunt was born in South Auckland, into a large Samoan family, and was a troubled child eventually leading to two jail terms for violent offending.
He had no intention to be a professional fighter until a late night altercation outside a nightclub just after getting out of jail for the second time in Auckland changed the course of his life. The brawl did not last long, and Hunt knocked out multiple people.
Sam Marsters, one of the bouncers at the door was impressed by the young man's knockout power and invited him to his gym to take up formal training, and a week later, Hunt won a Muay Thai kickboxing match via knockout. Hunt received a six-pack of beer as a reward for the fight.
Later that year Hunt moved to Sydney, Australia (residing in Campbelltown), to train with Alex Tui, and few years later he settled in Liverpool Kickboxing Gym under Maori instructor Hape Ngaranoa.
In the beginning of his career, Hunt was used by the promoters as a stepping stone for their up-and-coming fighters, taking up fights at short notice, until Tarik Solak promoted K-1 Oceania tournament in February 2000. With a record of (15-4, 3 KO's) Hunt entered his first K-1 tournament as a heavy underdog.
He won the K-1 Oceania title by knocking out "The Coconut Crusher" Aumitagi in quarter finals, Rony Sefo in semis and Phil Fagan in the finals. After this he was invited to Japan for K-1 qualifications. He lost his first international fight by unanimous decision against Jérôme Le Banner.
In 2001, Hunt returned to K-1 by winning the K-1 Oceania tournament for the second consecutive year. After that he took part of K-1 World GP 2001 in Melbourne, where he beat Japanese boxer Hiromi Amada, before suffering a close unanimous decision loss to reigning champion Ernesto Hoost.
However, because of his exciting fighting style Hunt was granted a wildcard spot in the repercharge tournament for the K-1 World GP 2001 Finals, when Mirko Cro Cop had to pull out due to injury. He was drawn against Ray Sefo, who won the bout by outpointing Hunt.
After the fight however, Sefo suffered an eye injury and was not able to continue, allowing Hunt to proceed in his place. Hunt then TKO'd Adam Watt to earn his place in the K-1 World Grand Prix Finals at the Tokyo Dome.
During the matchmaking for the K-1 Finals, Hunt surprised the crowd by choosing Jérôme Le Banner, whom he had just lost in the previous year, as his quarterfinal opponent. Hunt won the rematch by knocking out Le Banner in the second round and advanced himself onto the semi-finals facing Stefan Leko.
Hunt knocked down Leko two times in the first round and went on to win the fight by unanimous decision. The stage was set for the final battle against Brazilian Kyokushin karate champion Francisco Filho. In the final Hunt defeated Filho by unanimous decision to become the K-1 World Grand Prix 2001 champion.
In 2002, Hunt went to Paris to fight Le Banner again for the third time what turned out to be one of the biggest battles in K-1 history. Le Banner, fighting in front of his hometown audience, knocked down Hunt in the second round but was in turn knocked down himself a few seconds later.
In the final moments of the round, Hunt was knocked down for the second time again by the powerful Frenchman. In between rounds the towel was thrown in as Hunt could not continue.
On 17 December 2002, Mark Hunt returned to defend his K-1 World Grand Prix Championship. In quarter finals, entering the third round and behind on all scorecards, Mark was able to connect with a right cross that knocked out Stefan Leko and advanced him to the semi-finals against his career long nemesis Jerome Le Banner.
Despite knocking down the Frenchman at the end of the third round, Hunt lost the fight by decision. It would to be his last K-1 World Grand Prix appearance.
In April 2008, FEG announced Hunt's return to K-1 and nominated him as the challenger of K-1 Super Heavyweight Championship held by Semmy Schilt. The match was held on 13 April 2008, in Yokohama, Japan at the K-1 World GP 2008 in Yokohama. Hunt lost the fight at the end of the first round by spinning back kick to the body. Hunt's mixed martial arts career saw him fight in events in Japan's PRIDE Fighting Championships. His first MMA fight was a submission loss to Hidehiko Yoshida, an Olympic gold medalist in judo.
In his second fight, he defeated American wrestler Dan Bobish by TKO. Hunt stepped in as a late replacement for Sakuraba, and won a split decision against an outweighed PRIDE middleweight (205 lb) champion Wanderlei Silva. Silva, renowned for his brutal punching and Muay Thai clinch game, was neutralized by the hard-hitting Samoan and knocked down several times in the fight.
At the PRIDE Shockwave 2005 event, Hunt surprisingly defeated Mirko Cro Cop via a split decision, after his earlier loss to him in K-1. At PRIDE 31: Unbreakable, Hunt defeated Japanese boxer Yosuke Nishijima in the third round with a powerful one-two punch.
Hunt's next fight was in the opening round of PRIDE's 2006 Open-Weight Grand Prix (PRIDE Total Elimination Absolute) on 5 May 2006. His opponent was Japan's Tsuyoshi Kohsaka, who he defeated by TKO in the second round.
He then faced American catch-wrestler Josh Barnett at PRIDE Critical Countdown Absolute in the second round of the tournament. Hunt was immediately taken down by Barnett and ultimately lost to a kimura submission roughly two and a half minutes into the first round.
Following that fight, Hunt next lost to PRIDE Heavyweight Champion Fedor Emelianenko at PRIDE Shockwave 2006. Hunt controlled Emelianenko most of the fight and even effectively countered an armbar early in the bout.
Hunt's greatest chance of winning came when he was able to put Emelianenko in an americana. Unfortunately for Hunt, Emelianenko was able to fight through it and submit Hunt with a kimura.
On 21 July 2008, more than a year after his previous MMA fight, Hunt returned to MMA to face Alistair Overeem at the Dream 5: Lightweight Grand Prix 2008 Final Round, and was submitted by an armlock in just over a minute into the first round.
Hunt was set to fight Jerome Le Banner at Dynamite!! 2008 but ended up fighting late replacement Melvin Manhoef after Le Banner pulled out.
Despite the fact that he had a substantial weight advantage over Manhoef, he was knocked out in 18 seconds in the first round. This marked the first time he had been stopped by knockout due to punches to the head.
On 26 May 2009, Hunt fought former DREAM Middleweight Champion Gegard Mousasi in the opening round of the Super Hulk Grand Prix at DREAM 9. He lost by submission in the first round.
Hunt was transferred to the UFC as part of their acquisition of Pride Fighting Championships. The UFC offered to pay up Hunt's contract and more - totaling $450,000 - but Hunt elected to fight instead.
Hunt made his UFC debut on 25 September 2010 at UFC 119 against fellow UFC newcomer and undefeated prospect Sean McCorkle. Hunt trained with American Top Team for the fight.
Photos that had emerged on the internet had shown that Hunt had lost a considerable amount of weight in comparison to that of his Pride days.He was defeated via submission (straight armbar) at 1:03 of the first round.
Hunt's next fight in the UFC was against Chris Tuchscherer at UFC 127 on 27 Feb in Sydney, Australia. Hunt defeated Tuchscherer in the second round via KO, earning Knockout of the Night honors. Hunt followed this performance via unanimous decision (29–28, 29–27, and 30–27) win over Ben Rothwell at UFC 135 on 24 September 2011.
Hunt next faced Cheick Kongo on 26 February 2012 at UFC 144.[19] Hunt won the fight via TKO due to punches, at 2:11 of the first round. Hunt was expected face Stefan Struve on 26 May 2012 at UFC 146. However, he pulled out of the bout due to injury ten days prior to the event.
The bout with Struve was rescheduled for 3 March 2013 at UFC on Fuel TV 8. Hunt defeated Struve via third-round TKO in a performance that earned Hunt Knockout of the Night honors. Hunt faced Junior dos Santos on 25 May 2013 at UFC 160, replacing an injured Alistair Overeem.
Hunt lost the fight via knockout in the third round in a bout that earned both participants Fight of the Night honors. Afterwards, some major MMA media outlets was considering this to be the best fight in the history of the UFC heavyweight division.
Hunt faced Antônio Silva in the main event on 7 December 2013 at UFC Fight Night 33. The fight went to a decision, with one judge scoring it 48–47 for Hunt, while the other two judges had the scores even 47–47, resulting in a majority draw. Post-fight, Dana White stated that the bout won Fight of the Night and, despite the draw result, both men would receive their win bonuses.
The bout with Silva has been described as one of the best in the promotion's heavyweight history. In a post-fight test, Silva tested positive for elevated testosterone, which was believed to be attributed to undergoing UFC-approved testosterone replacement therapy. In turn, the bout is still a "draw" on Hunt's official record, while in Silva's case it was overturned to a no-contest.
On 5 August 2014, Hunt posted cryptic tweets about becoming unemployed, which Dana White immediately denied. At first, Hunt blamed his tweets on hunger, but later in mid-August he revealed that he had decided to walk away from the sport due to business reasons.
Hunt originally wanted a three-fight contract while the UFC wanted an eight-fight contract. After Hunt's decision to walk away, his wife talked him around and he ended up with a six-fight contract with the organization. At the end of August 2014, Hunt revealed that the contract will be the last of his mixed martial arts career.
Hunt faced Roy Nelson on 20 September 2014 at UFC Fight Night 52. He won the fight by knockout in the second round. The win earned Hunt his first Performance of the Night bonus award, and the World MMA Awards' 2014 Knockout Of The Year award.
On 21 October 2014, it was announced that Hunt would replace injured UFC Heavyweight Champion Cain Velasquez in the main event at UFC 180. He faced off against Fabrício Werdum for the interim UFC Heavyweight Championship. Despite having early success and dropping Werdum due to punches twice, Hunt lost the fight via TKO in the second round.
Hunt faced Stipe Miocic on 10 May 2015 at UFC Fight Night 65. He lost the fight via TKO in the fifth round. Miocic set a UFC record for the most strikes landed in a fight, outlanding Hunt 361 - 48 over the duration of the bout.
Hunt faced Antônio Silva in a rematch on 15 November 2015 at UFC 193. Hunt won the fight via TKO, after dropping his opponent with a straight right up against the fence, at 3:41 of the first round.
Hunt faced Frank Mir on 20 March 2016 at UFC Fight Night 85. He won the fight via KO in the first round, after putting Mir to the canvas with a right hand, and finished with a 'walk-off' KO. He was awarded with Performance of the Night for his efforts.
It was later announced that Mir failed an in-competition drug test. Despite talks about the contract done after previous dispute being Hunt's last, on 14 April 2016 it was published that Hunt had signed new six-fight, multi-million contract with UFC.
Hunt faced a returning Brock Lesnar on 9 July 2016 at UFC 200, but lost by unanimous decision. However, on 15 July it was revealed that Lesnar had tested positive on a banned substance in a pre-fight drug test. The test result was conducted on 28 June 11 days prior to the fight, and was flagged by USADA as a potential anti-doping violation.
On 19 July, the UFC announced that Lesnar tested positive for the same banned substance on a second, in-competition sample. On 23 August, the Nevada Athletic Commission confirmed that Lesnar twice tested positive for the estrogen blocker clomiphene, and that he has been temporarily suspended. As a result of Lesnar's positive tests, the result of the fight was later changed to a no contest.
Hunt faced Alistair Overeem in a rematch on 4 March 2017 at UFC 209. He lost the fight via knockout in the third round after being dropped by a series of knees. Hunt faced Derrick Lewis on 11 June 2017 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 110.
It was first combat sports fight in Auckland since UFC Fight Night 43 in Vector Arena. He won by TKO in the fourth round. The win also earned Hunt his third Fight of the Night bonus award.
Hunt was expected to face Marcin Tybura on 19 November 2017 at UFC Fight Night: Hunt vs. Tybura. However, on 10 October, UFC pulled Hunt from the card and he was replaced by Fabrício Werdum as UFC official has reviewed Hunt's article, entitled, 'If I Die Fighting, That's Fine" on his health status from the consequences he suffered from his long term fighting career (slur speech and loss of memory- an early signs of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)).
Hunt was upset with the news and responded on his Instagram that the quote was taken out of context, and had been cleared to fight from doctor two days prior UFC pulled him from the fight.
“ I will probably end my life fighting. I just hope that if it does happen, it will be in an honest and fair competition. My body is fucked but my mind is still here. I’ve still got my senses about me and I know what’s right and wrong, which is the main thing.
I feel proud that I got here without cheating. Proud that I got here without taking any shortcuts and by doing it the proper way. My way. I’d be champ already if it wasn’t for the cheaters. We need the Ali Act put in place. Fighters want to know what they’re worth. These guys don’t get paid jack shit. ”
It was announced that Hunt has cleared to fight in December 2017 after went through some medical tests in Las Vegas which was arranged by UFC. Hunt faced Curtis Blaydes on 11 February 2018 at UFC 221. He also announced that he would not seek contract extension after his contract ends in 2 fights after UFC 221.
He knocked Blaydes down with an overhand right in the first round, but lost the fight via unanimous decision after he got outwrestled by Blaydes for the following two rounds.
Hunt faced Alexey Oleynik on 15 September 2018 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 136. He lost the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the first round. Hunt faced Justin Willis on 2 December 2018 at UFC Fight Night 142. He lost the fight via unanimous decision. This fight was his last fight of his UFC contract and Hunt has said he will continue his fighting career with other organisations.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Hunt
AR changed the face of New Zealand in the 19th century. Tens of thousands of Maori may have died in intertribal Musket Wars between the 1810s and the 1830s.
Muskets revolutionised intertribal warfare, decimating some tribes and drastically shifting the boundaries of areas controlled by others. Thousands fled their traditional lands, complicating questions of ownership and opening large areas to potential Pakeha (European) settlement.
Between the 1840s and the 1870s British and colonial forces fought to open up the interior of the North Island for settlement in conflicts that became known collectively as the New Zealand Wars.
Sovereignty was contested on the ground despite the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, and Maori became less willing to sell land to the rapidly growing European population. Many Maori died defending their land; others allied themselves with the colonists for a variety of reasons, sometimes to settle old scores.
Most of the several thousand people killed during the New Zealand Wars were Maori, and the land of many of the survivors was subsequently confiscated. During the Musket Wars of the 1810s-1830s thousands of Maori fled from their traditional lands, opening large areas to potential Pakeha (European) settlement.
In 1840, Europeans bought one desirable depopulated area, Auckland, for a tiny amount. This purchase sowed the seeds of interracial conflict. Ngapuhi led by Hone Heke felt betrayed when trade slumped after the colonial government quit the Bay of Islands for Auckland.
In 1845, Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti (an expert at designing modern pa capable of resisting artillery bombardment) launched a campaign that threatened British control in the north. But other Ngapuhi allied themselves with the government, and the conflict fizzled out. (Read more about the Northern War).
Further south, 22 Europeans and four Maori had been killed on 17 June 1843, when an armed party of New Zealand Company settlers clashed with Ngati Toa over the ownership of land in the Wairau Valley near today's town of Blenheim. The new governor, Robert FitzRoy, maintained that the Maori had been provoked by the unreasonable actions of the Europeans and took no further action.
After the Northern War ended, FitzRoy's successor as governor, the energetic George Grey, moved to secure the towns of Wellington and Whanganui against allies of Te Rauparaha. Fighting flared in both regions but died away when other iwi backed the economically valuable Pakeha.
The 1850s was a decade of uneasy peace. Settlers and sheep spread across the South Island, which had never had many Maori inhabitants. But in the North Island most colonists remained stuck in coastal settlements.
In 1854 the first New Zealand Parliament met in Auckland. Initially the governor retained most of his power, but by 1856 the settlers had achieved ‘responsible’ government. The development of settler government (there were at first no Maori MPs) reflected the increase in Pakeha numbers. By 1858 there were more Europeans than Maori. As new settlements grew, the pressure on Maori land increased.
The British government had always wanted New Zealand to pay its own way. In 1860 Maori still held 80% of the North Island, and many hapu had taken up commercial farming to supply the settlers. Acquiring Maori land – especially land that Pakeha chose to see as unoccupied ‘waste land’ – was now a key policy.
In 1858 the Waikato leader Potatau Te Wherowhero was selected as the first Maori King. A primary aim of the Maori King movement (the Kingitanga) was to unite tribes against selling land. New Plymouth under seige, 1860 - Many settlers and politicians were concerned about this development and believed this challenge to the British Crown should be met.
An opportunity to do so occurred when a minor Te Ati Awa chief, Te Teira Manuka, offered land at Waitara in north Taranaki to the governor, Thomas Gore Browne. Resistance to this sale from another, more senior Te Ati Awa chief, Wiremu Kingi, led to the outbreak of the Taranaki War in 1860.
New Plymouth was besieged, but British troops failed to lure Te Ati Awa, Ngati Ruanui and their Waikato allies into a decisive battle. The involvement of fighters from Waikato was of particular concern to the authorities. A truce was agreed in 1861 but the situation remained unresolved. Hostilities recommenced in 1863 on the eve of the government’s invasion of Waikato.
George Grey was brought back in 1861 for a second term as governor. Having been credited with ending the Northern War in 1846, he was seen as the man to sort out the colony's problems.
In a classic case of ‘carrot and stick’ he promised Maori local autonomy while at the same time building a military road from Auckland to the Waikato River, the main artery to the Kingitanga heartland.
After giving Maori an ultimatum to pledge allegiance to Queen Victoria, Grey invaded Waikato in July 1863. Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron's 12,000 imperial troops faced fewer than 5000 part-time fighters, who had to provide much of their own food and supplies.
Cameron's army took seven months to reach the Kingitanga agricultural base at Rangiaowhia, near Te Awamutu. On the way they outflanked formidable modern pa at Meremere and Paterangi, and captured an undermanned pa at Rangiriri.
In April 1864 Kingites under Rewi Maniapoto were heavily defeated at Orakau, a pa built on a poorly chosen site. Cameron then tried to crush Kingites holding Pukehinahina, ‘the Gate Pa’, at Tauranga, but failed disastrously. Two months later the British got their revenge at nearby Te Ranga.
In 1864 the Kingites took refuge in Ngati Maniapoto territory – the ‘King's Country’. Much of their land was confiscated by the settler government. Another round of fighting was sparked by new Maori religious movements.
Te Ua Haumene and Pai Marire - The first prophet to emerge at this time was Te Ua Haumene. His Pa Marire faith had grown out of the conflict over land in Taranaki in 1862.
Followers of his Hauhau church soon distorted its principles of ‘goodness and peace’ to justify guerrilla attacks from Taranaki to the East Coast. These raids terrified many. Despite high-profile incidents such as the killing of the missionary Carl Völkner at Opotiki, the attacks lacked coordination and each flare-up was soon doused.
Titokowaru - A graver crisis struck in 1868 when resistance to land confiscation in Taranaki erupted into warfare. In south Taranaki the Ngati Ruanui leader Titokowaru won several stunning victories despite being heavily outnumbered. A Methodist lay preacher who became a Pai Marire prophet, Titokowaru gained some support from the King Movement and his fighting force grew to around 400.
His victories almost brought the colony to its knees, and the government considered returning confiscated land. But at the height of his success Titokowaru’s army mysteriously fell apart. This may have been due to his adultery with the wife of an allied chief. Read more about Titokowaru's war.
Te Kooti and Ringatu - With neither British nor settlers willing to foot the bills for the imperial army, kupapa and settler militia now filled front-line roles. In 1868 the small colonial army, the Armed Constabulary, faced war on two fronts.
Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki of Rongowhakaata had been arrested for allegedly helping a Pai Marire force in 1865. He was one of hundreds exiled to the Chatham Islands, 800 km east of the South Island. In exile Te Kooti established the Ringatu faith, which was adopted by many of his fellow prisoners. He and his followers overpowered their guards and sailed back to the mainland in July 1868.
When the government refused to negotiate, they descended on Poverty Bay in November to attack the many locals – Maori and Pakeha – who had offended Te Kooti over the years.
After a battle at Ngatapa at the beginning of 1869 Te Kooti retreated to the Urewera Range. Over the following years he was pursued across the central North Island by a number of forces, including the Arawa Flying Column. Trained and led by Captain Gilbert Mair, this highly mobile guerrilla unit was made up of 100 young Te Arawa men.
The final phase of the war with Te Kooti was a bitter campaign. One by one the Tuhoe leaders were forced to surrender. Stripped of his main support, Te Kooti took shelter in the King Country under the protection of King Tawhiao. He was eventually pardoned by the government in 1883. Read more about Te Kooti's war. After the New Zealand Wars ended in 1872, the King Country remained closed to Pakeha for more than a decade, until Ngati Maniapoto leaders agreed to the construction of the North Island Main Trunk railway in the mid-1880s.
South Taranaki resisted settler incursions until 1881, when the assertive Parihaka community was dispersed by the colonial army. Resistance flared briefly in Hokianga in 1898, and parts of Urewera remained off-limits to Pakeha until 1916.
Weight of numbers and military and economic power had prevailed, though, and the map of New Zealand had been redrawn. By 1900 this was a settler society, with Maori pushed out to its fringes.
Several thousand people died in the New Zealand Wars, most of them Maori. The numbers below group data for individual battles provided by the historian James Cowan, who sometimes overstated the casualties of Maori who opposed the settlers. The death toll was most balanced in the 1840s and in Titokowaru's War. Pai Marire followers suffered the highest proportionate losses.
https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/nzwars/flags
Once known as Eskimos, the Inuit inhabit the Arctic region, one of the most forbidding territories on earth. Occupying lands that stretch 12,000 miles from parts of Siberia, along the Alaskan coast, across Canada, and on to Greenland, the Inuit are one of the most widely dispersed people in the world, but number only about 60,000 in population. Between 25,000 and 35,000 reside in Alaska, with other smaller groups in Canada, Greenland, and Siberia.
The name Eskimo was given to these people by neighboring Abnaki Indians and means "eaters of raw flesh." The name they call themselves is Inuit, or "the people." Culturally and linguistically distinct from Native Americans of the lower 48 states, as well as from the Athabaskan people of Alaska, the Inuit are closely related to the Mongoloid peoples of eastern Asia.
It is estimated that the Inuit arrived some 4,000 years ago on the North American continent, thus coming much later than other indigenous peoples. The major language family for Arctic peoples is Eskaleut.
While Aleut is considered a separate language, Eskimo branches into Inuit and Yup'ik. Yup'ik includes several languages, while Inuit is a separate tongue with several local dialects, including Inupiaq (Alaska), Inuktitut (Eastern Canada), and Kalaallisut (Greenland).
Throughout their long history and vast migrations, the Inuit have not been greatly influenced by other Indian cultures. Their use and array of tools, their spoken language, and their physical type have changed little over large periods of time and space.
Alaskan Inuit inhabit the west, southwest, and the far north and northwest of Alaska, comprising the Alutiiq, Yup'ik (or Yupiat), and Inupiat tribes. As the first two tribes are dealt with separately, this essay will focus on that group regionally known as Inupiat, and formerly known as Bering Strait or Kotzebue Sound Eskimos, and even sometimes West Alaskan and North Alaskan Eskimos.
Residing in some three dozen villages and towns— including Kotzebue, Point Hope, Wainwright, Barrow, and Prudhoe Bay—between the Bering Strait and the McKenzie Delta to the east, and occupying some 40,000 square miles above the Arctic Circle, this group has been divided differently by various anthropologists. Some classify the Inuit into two main groups, the inland people or Nuunamiut, and the coastal people, the Tagiugmiut.
Ernest S. Burch, Jr., however, in his book The Inupiaq Eskimo Nations of Northwestern Alaska, divides the heartland, or original southerly Inupiat, who settled around Kotzebue Sound and the Chukchi Sea, into 12 distinct tribes or nations. This early "homeland" of the Inupiat, around Kotzebue Sound, was extended as the tribes eventually moved farther north.
Over 40 percent of Alaskan Inuit now reside in urban areas, with Anchorage having the highest population, and Nome on the south of the Seward Peninsula also having a large group of Inupiat as well as Yup'ik. Within Inupiat territory, the main population centers are Barrow and Kotzebue.
Among the last Native groups to come into North America, the Inuit crossed the Bering land bridge sometime between 6000 B.C. and 2000 B.C. , according to various sources. Anthropologists have discerned several different cultural epochs that began around the Bering Sea.
The Denbigh, also known as the Small Tool culture, began some 5000 years ago, and over the course of the next millennia it spread westward though Arctic Alaska and Canada.
Oriented to the sea and to living with snow, the Denbigh most likely originated the snow house. Characterized by the use of flint blades, skin-covered boats, and bows and arrows, the Denbigh was transformed further east into the Dorset Tradition by about 1000 B.C.
Signs of both the Denbigh and Dorset cultures have been unearthed at the well-known Ipiutak site, located near the Inuit settlement of Point Hope, approximately 125 miles north of the Arctic Circle.
Point Hope, still a small Inuit village at the mouth of the Kukpuk River, appears to have been continuously inhabited for 2,000 years, making it the oldest known Inuit settlement. The population of the historical Ipiutak was probably larger than that of the modern village of Point Hope, with a population of about 2,000 people.
Houses at Ipiutak were small, about 12 by 15 feet square, with sod-covered walls and roof. Benches against the walls were used for sleeping, while the fire was kept in a small central depression of the main room. Artifacts from the site indicate that the Ipiutak hunted sea and land mammals, as do modern Inuit.
Seals, walruses, and caribou provided the basis of their diet. Though the tools of whale hunting, including harpoons, floats, and sleds, were missing from this site, bone and ivory carvings of a rare delicacy—reminiscent of some ancient Siberian art—were found.
Other Inuit settled in part-time villages during the same epoch. The continuous development of these peoples is demonstrated by the similarities in both ancient and modern Inuit cultures.
Called by some the Old Bering Sea Cultures, these early inhabitants traveled by kayak and umiak skin boats in the warmer months, and by sled in the winter. Living near the coast, they hunted sea and land mammals, lived in tiny semi-subterranean dwellings, and developed a degree of artistic skill.
The Dorset culture was later superseded by the Norton culture, which was in turn followed by the Thule. The Thule already had characteristics of culture common to Inuit culture: the use of dogs, sleds, kayaks, and whale hunting with harpoons.
They spread westward through Canada and ultimately on to Greenland. However, it appears that some of the Thule backtracked, returning to set up permanent villages in both Alaska and Siberia.
Anthropologically classified as central-based wanderers, the Inuit spent part of the year on the move, searching for food, and then part of the year at a central, more permanent camp. Anywhere from a dozen to fifty people traveled in a hunting group. The year was divided into three hunting seasons, revolving around one animal. The hunting seasons were seal, caribou, and whale.
The yearly cycle began with the spring seal hunting, continued with caribou hunting in the summer, and fishing in the autumn. A caribou hunt was also mounted in the fall. In the far north, whales were hunted in the early spring. It was a relentless cycle, broken up with occasional feasts after the seal and caribou hunts, and with summer trade fairs to which groups from miles around attended.
Though most Arctic peoples were not organized into tribes, those of present-day Alaska are to a certain extent. One reason for such organization is the whaling occupation of the northwestern Alaska natives.
These people settled north of the Brooks Range and along the coast from Kotzebue in the southwest, up to Point Hope and north and east to Barrow, the mouth of the Colville River, and on to the present-day Canadian border at Demarcation Point.
These areas provided rich feeding grounds for bowhead whale. Strong leaders were needed for whaling expeditions; thus, older men with experience who knew how to handle an umiak, the large wooden-framed boat, used to hunt whales. For thousands of years the Inuit lived lives unrecorded by history. This changed with their first contact with Europeans. The Vikings under Eric the Red encountered Inuit in Greenland in 984.
Almost six hundred years later, the British explorer Martin Frobisher made contact with the Central Inuit of northern Canada. In 1741, the Russian explorer, Vitus Bering, met the Inuit of Alaska.
It is estimated that there were about 40,000 Inuit living in Alaska at the time, with half of them living in the north, both in the interior and in the far northwest. The Inuit, Aleut, and Native Americans living below the Arctic Circle were the most heavily affected by this early contact, occasioned by Russian fur traders. However, northern Inuit were not greatly affected until the second round of European incursions in the area, brought on by an expanded whale trade.
Russian expeditions in the south led to the near destruction of Aleutian culture. This was the result of both the spread of disease by whites as well as outright murder. The first white explorers to reach Arctic Alaska were the Englishmen Sir John Franklin and Captain F. W. Beechey.
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Both noted the extensive trade carried on between Inuit and Indian groups. Other early explorers, including Alexander Kasherov, noted this intricate trading system as well, in which goods were moved from Siberia to Barrow and back again through a network of regularly held trade fairs.
All of this changed, however, with the arrival of European whalers by the mid-nineteenth century. Formerly hunters of Pacific sperm whale, these whaling fleets came to Arctic regions following the bowhead whale migration to the Beaufort Sea for summer feeding.
Unlike the Inuit, who used all parts of the whale for their subsistence, the whaling fleets from New England and California were interested primarily in baleen, the long and flexible strips of keratin that served as a filtering system for the bowhead whale.
This material was used for the manufacture of both buttons and corset hooks, and fetched high prices. One bowhead could yield many pounds and was valued at $8000, a substantial amount of money for that time.
In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska, and whaling operations increased. The advent of steam-powered vessels further increased the number of ships in the region. Soon, whaling ships from the south were a regular feature in Arctic waters.
Their immediate effect was the destruction of the intricate trading network built up over centuries. With the whalers to pick up and deliver goods, Inuit traders were no longer needed. A second effect, due to contact between the whalers and the Inuit, was the introduction of new diseases and alcohol.
This, in conjunction with an obvious consequence of the whaling industry, the reduction of the whale population, made life difficult for the Inuit. Dependence on wage drew the Inuit out of their millennia-long hunting and trading existence as they signed on as deckhands or guides.
Village life became demoralized because of the trade in whiskey. Small settlements disappeared entirely; others were greatly impacted by diseases brought by the whalers. Point Hope lost 12 percent of its population in one year. In 1900, 200 Inuit died in Point Barrow from a flu epidemic brought by a whaler, and in 1902, 100 more were lost to measles.
Although relatively unaffected by the whaling operations, the Inuit of the inland areas, known as Nuunamiut, also saw a sharp decline in their population from the mid-nineteenth century.
Their independence had not protected them from the declining caribou herds nor from increasing epidemics. As a result, these people almost totally disappeared from their inland settlements, moving instead to coastal areas.
A number of actions were undertaken in attempts to improve the conditions of the Inuit at the end of the nineteen century and the early years of the twentieth century. The U.S. government intervened, obstensibly, to ameliorate the situation with improved education.
However, the motivations behind this strategy by the U.S. government are the subject of much debate by many Natives and scholars of Inuit culture and history. Schools were established at Barrow and Point Hope in the 1890s, and new communities were only recognized once they established schools.
The government also tried to make up for depleted resources, as the whaling trade had died out in the early years of the twentieth century, due to depleted resources as well as the discovery of substitutes for baleen. The U.S. Bureau of Education, the office given responsibility for the Inuit at the time, imported reindeer from Siberia.
They planned to turn the Inuit, traditionally semi-sedentary hunters, into nomadic herders. However, after an early peak in the reindeer population in 1932, their numbers dwindled, and the reindeer experiment ultimately proved a failure.
Game was no longer plentiful, and the Inuit themselves changed, seeking more than a subsistence way of life. For a time, beginning in the 1920s, fox fur trading served as a supplement to subsistence. Yet, trapping led to an increased breakdown of traditional cooperative ways of life.
Fox fur trading lasted only a decade, and by the 1930s, the U.S. government was pouring more money into the area, setting up post offices, and aid relief agencies. Christian missions were also establishing school in the region. Concurrent with these problems was an increase in mortality rates from tuberculosis.
The search for petroleum also greatly affected the region. Since the end of World War II, with the discovery of North Slope oil in 1968, the culture as well as the ecology of the region changed in ways never imagined by nineteenth-century Inuit. Other wage-economies developed in the region.
The Cold War brought jobs to the far north, and native art work became an increasing form of income, especially for carvers. In the 1950s, the construction of a chain of radar sites such as the Distant Early Warning system (DEW) employed Inuit laborers, and many more were later employed to maintain the facilities.
In 1959, Alaska became the forty-ninth state, thus extending U.S. citizenship rights and privileges to all of state's population. At the end of the twentieth century, a number of issues face the Inuit: the use of technology, urban flight by the young, and thus, the viability of their traditional culture. Caught between two worlds, the Inuit now use snowmobiles and the Internet in place of the umiak and the sled. Nonetheless, they have designed legislative and traditional ways to maintain and protect their subsistence lifestyle. Since 1978, this lifestyle has been given priority, and it is legally protected.
Acculturation and Assimilation - As with the rest of Native Americans, the Inuit acculturation and assimilation patterns were more the result of coercion than choice.
A main tool of assimilation was education. Schools, set up by the state or by missions, discouraged the learning of native languages; English became the primary language for students who were often transported hundreds of miles from their homes.
Students who spoke their native Inupiaq language were punished and made to stand with their faces to the corner or by having their mouths washed out with soap.
Returning to their home villages after being sent away for four years to the Bureau of Indian Affairs high schools, these Inuit no longer had a connection to their language or culture. They were ill-equipped to pass traditions on to their own children.
By the 1970s, however, this trend was reversed, as the Inuit began organizing, demanding, and winning more local autonomy. More local schools opened that honored the ancient ways of the Inuit. For many this was too little, too late.
Though old dances and festivals have returned, and the language is studied by the young, it is yet to be seen if the old cultural heritage can be re-instituted after a century and more of assimilation. Inuit social organization was largely based on bilateral kinship relations. There was little formal tribal control, which led to blood feuds between clans. However, hunting or trading provided opportunities for cooperative endeavors, in which different kinship groups teamed up for mutual benefit.
Wintertime was a period for the village to come together; men gathered in the common houses called kashims or karigi, also used for dancing.
Games, song contests, wrestling, and storytelling brought the people of small villages together after hunts and during the long, dark winter months. Much of Inuit life was adapted to the extremes of summer and winter night lengths.
Inupiats formerly lived in semi-excavated winter dwellings, made of driftwood and sod built into a dome. Moss functioned as insulation in these crude shelters.
A separate kitchen had a smoke hole, and there were storage areas and a meat cellar. These dwellings could house 8 to 12 people. Temporary snow houses were also used, though the legendary igloo was a structure used more by Canadian Inuit.
Subsistence food for the Inuit of Alaska included whale meat, caribou, moose, walrus, seal, fish, fowl, mountain sheep, bear, hares, squirrels, and foxes. Plant food included wild herbs and roots, as well as berries. Meat is dried or kept frozen in ice cellars dug into the tundra.
Traditionally, Inuit women tanned seal and caribou skins to make clothing, much of it with fur trim. Two suits of such fur clothing were worn in the colder months, the inner one with the fur turned inward.
Waterproof jackets were also made from the intestines of various sea mammals, while shoes were constructed from seal and caribou hide that had been toughened by chewing.
Such clothing, however, has been replaced by manufactured clothing. Down parkas have replaced the caribou-skins, and rubber, insulated boots have replaced chewed seal skin.
However, such clothing has become a major source of income for some individuals and groups. Traditional clothing, from mukluks to fur parkas, has become valued as art and artifact outside the Inuit.
An oral culture, Inuit danced at traditional feast times in ritual dance houses called karigi. These dances were accompanied by drums and the recitation of verse stories. Some of these dances represented the caribou hunt; others might portray a flight of birds or a battle with the weather.
Both poetry and dance were important to the Inuit; storytelling was vital for peoples who spent the long winter months indoors and in darkness. The word for poetry in Inupiaq is the same as the word to breathe, and both derive from anerca, the soul.
Such poems were sung and often accompanied by dancers who moved in imitation of the forces of nature. Many of the traditional singers were also shamans and had the power to cast spells with their words. Thus, dance took on both a secular and religious significance to the Inuit.
The Inuit created songs for dancing, for hunting, for entertaining children, for weather, for healing, for sarcasm, and for derision. Some dance and song festivals would last for days with the entire community participating, their voices accompanied by huge hoop drums. These dance traditions have been resurrected among Inuit communities. For example, the Northern Lights Dancers have pioneered this venture. Major feasts for the Inupiat took place in the winter and in spring. In December came the Messenger Feast held inside the community building.
This potlatch feast demonstrated social status and wealth. A messenger would be sent to a neighboring community to invite it to be guests at a feast. Invitations were usually the result of a wish for continued or improved trading relations with the community in question.
Gifts were exchanged at such feasts. Some southern groups also held Messenger Feasts in the fall. The spring whaling festival, or nalukataq, was held after the whale hunt as a thanksgiving for success and to ask for continued good fortune with next year's hunt.
It was held also to appease the spirit of the killed whales. Similar to other Bladder Dances or Festivals of non-Alaskan Inuit groups, these ceremonies intended to set free the spirits of sea mammals killed during the year.
At the nalukataq, a blanket toss would take place, in which members of the community were bounced high from a walrus-skin "trampoline." Another spring festival marked the coming of the sun. Dressed in costumes that were a mixture of male and female symbols to denote creation, the Inuit danced to welcome the sun's return.
Trading fairs took place throughout the year. The summer Kotzebue fair was one of the largest. In 1991, it was revived, held just after the Fourth of July. For the first time in a century, Russian Inuit came to celebrate the fair with their Alaskan relatives. The Messenger Feast has also been re-instituted, held in January in Barrow.
In traditional Inuit society the healing of the sick was the responsibility of the shaman or a ngakok, who contacted spirits by singing, dancing, and drum beating. He would take on the evil spirit of the sick.
Shamans, however, proved helpless against the diseases brought by the Europeans and Americans. Tuberculosis was an early scourge of the Inuit, wiping out entire villages. Alcohol proved equally as lethal, and though it was outlawed, traders were able to bring it in as contraband to trade for furs.
Alcohol dependency continues to be a major problem among Inuit villages and has resulted in a high occurrence of fetal alcohol syndrome. Thus, ten villages in the Northwest Arctic Borough have banned the importation and sale of alcohol, while Kotzebue has made the sale of liquor illegal but allows the importation of it for individual consumption. Nonetheless, alcohol continues to be a source of major problems despite the implementation of "dry" towns and burroughs.
Rates of accident, homicide and suicide among the Inuit are far higher than among the general Alaskan population. Moreover, there is a high rate of infant mortality and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and infant spinal disorders.
Another health issue, particularly for the Inuit of the Cape Thompson region, is cancer, brought on by the dumping of 15,000 pounds of nuclear waste by the Atomic Energy Commission.
Also, radiation experiments on flora and fauna of the region as well as Russian nuclear waste dumping offshore have contaminated many areas of northwestern Alaska, putting the native population at risk.
The Inuit communities of northern Alaska speak Inupiaq, part of the Eskaleut family of languages. All Inuit bands speak very closely related dialects of this language family. Its roots are in the Ural-Altaic languages of Finland, Hungary, and Turkey. Alaskan Eskaleut languages include Aleut, Yup'ik and Inupiaq.
Many Inuit words have become common in English and other languages of the world. Words such as kayak, husky, igloo, and parka all have come from the Inuit. The worldview of the Inuit is summed up in a popular and fatalistic expression, Ajurnamat, "it cannot be helped."
The future of Inuit-speaking Alaska is optimistic. Language instruction in school, as noted, was for many years solely in English, with native languages discouraged. Literacy projects have been started at Barrow schools to encourage the preservation of the language. However, English is the primary language of the region.
Local groups were formed by nuclear and small extended families led by an umialik, or family head, usually an older man. The umialik might lead hunting expeditions, and he and his wife would be responsible for the distribution of food.
Beyond that, however, there was little control exerted on proper behavior in traditional Inuit society. Villages throughout northern Alaska have replaced hunting bands, thus preserving to some extent the fluid network of their traditional society.
Education for the Inuit is still problematic. Each village has its own school, funded by the state with extra funds from the federal government. Yet the dropout rate is still high among their youth.
There was a 30 percent dropout rate in grade school in 1965, a rate that climbed to 50 to 80 percent in high school. And for those few who reached college at that same time, some 97 percent dropped out.
Ten years later, in 1975, the rates had gone down considerably, in part due to a revival of teaching in Inupiaq, as opposed to English-only instruction. Most Inuit under 15 are minimally literate in English. However, in older generations the same is not true.
Birth and pregnancy were traditionally surrounded by many taboos. For example, it was thought that if a pregnant woman walked out of a house backwards, she would have a breech delivery, or if a pregnant mother slept at irregular times during the day this would result in a lazy baby.
Also, there were special birthing houses or aanigutyaks, where the woman went through labor in a kneeling (or squatting) position. These postures have been recognized by Western culture as often preferable to the hospital bed.
Most children are baptized within a month of birth and given an English name along with an Inuit one. Chosen by their parents, these names are normally of a recently departed relative or of some respected person. Siblings help care for children after the first few months, and the baby soon becomes accustomed to being carried about in packs or under parkas.
There is no preference shown for either male or female babies; both are seen as a gift from nature. While moss and soft caribou skin have been replaced with cotton and disposable diapers, the Inuit's attitude toward their young has not changed. They are loved and given much latitude by both parents, and fathers participate actively in raising their children.
There is still a recognized division of labor by gender, but it is a fluid one. In traditional societies, the men hunted, while the women tanned skins and made clothing and generally took care of domestic activities, and this occurred under the aegis of the extended family.
In the modern era much of this has changed, but in general, outside employment is still the obligation of the male as well as any ancillary hunting activities necessary to help make ends meet. Women are, for the most part, confined to household tasks.
In the past, marriages were often arranged by parents; however, today dating openly occurs between teens. Group activities take precedence over individual dating. In traditional times, the most successful hunter could take more than one wife, though this was uncommon.
Also in the past, temporary marriages served to bond non-kin allegiances formed for hunting and or warfare. Married couples traditionally set up their home with the man's parents for a time.
Plumpness in a wife was a virtue, a sign of health and wealth. While divorce was, and is practiced in both traditional and modern Inuit societies, its incidence is not as high as in mainstream American society.
A central tenet of Inupiat religion was that the forces of nature were essentially malevolent. Inhabiting a ruthless climatological zone, the Inupiat believed that the spirits of the weather and of the animals must be placated to avoid harm.
As a result, there was strict observance of various taboos as well as dances and ceremonies in honor of such spirits. These spirit entities found in nature included game animals in particular. Inupiat hunters would, for example, always open the skull of a freshly killed animal to release its spirit.
Personal spirit songs were essential among whale hunters. Much of this religious tradition was directed and passed on by shamans, both male and female. These shamans could call upon a tuunsaq, or helping spirit, in times of trouble or crisis.
This spirit often took the shape of a land animal, into whose shape the shaman would change him or herself. Traditional Native religious practices, as well as the power of the shamans, decreased with the Inuit's increased contact with Europeans.
Traditionally, the Inuit economy revolved around the changing seasons and the animals that could be successfully hunted during these periods. The Inuit world was so closely linked to its subsistence economy that many of the calendar months were named after game prey.
For example, March was the moon for hanging up seal and caribou skins to bleach them; April was the moon for the onset of whaling; and October was the moon of rutting caribou. Whaling season began in the spring with the first break up of the ice.
At this time bowhead whales, some weighing as much as 60 tons, passed by northern Alaska to feeding grounds offshore, which were rich in plankton. Harpooners would strike deep into the huge mammal, and heavy sealskin floats would help keep the animal immobilized as lances were sunk into it.
Hauling the whale ashore, a section of blubber would be immediately cut off and boiled as a thanksgiving. Meat, blubber, bone, and baleen were all taken from the animal by parties of hunters under the head of an umialik, or boss. Such meat would help support families for months.
Caribou, another highly prized food source, was hunted in the summer and fall. In addition to the meat, the Inuit used the caribou's skin and antlers. Even the sinew was saved and used for thread. Baleen nets were also used for fishing at the mouths of rivers and streams. Walrus and seal were other staples of the traditional Inuit subsistence economy.
These practices changed with the arrival of the Europeans. As noted earlier, many attempts were made to replace diminished natural resources, including the importation of reindeer and the trapping of foxes for fur.
These were unsuccessful, and modern Inuit blend a wage economy with hunting and fishing. A major employer is the state and federal government. The Red Dog Mine, as well as the oil industry on the North Slope, also provide employment opportunities.
Smaller urban centers such as Barrow and Kotzebue offer a wider variety of employment opportunities, as does the Chukchi Sea Trading Company, a Point Hope arts and crafts cooperative that sells native arts online.
Others must rely on assistance programs, and for most there continues to be a dependence on both wage and subsistence economies. In order to facilitate subsistence economy, fishing and hunting rights were restored to the Inuit in 1980.
In general, living costs are greater in the rural areas of the north than in the rest of Alaska. For example, as David Maas pointed out in Native North American Almanac, a family living in Kotzebue could pay 62 percent more per week for food than a family in Anchorage, and 165 percent more for electricity.
The incidence of poverty is also higher among Alaskan Natives than for others in the state, with some 3,000 families receiving food stamps and 18,000 families relying on low-income energy subsidies. Over 25 percent of the Native population of the state live below the poverty line, while in some areas of Alaska, Native unemployment rates top 50 percent.
Traditional Inuit maintained a large degree of individual freedom, surprising in a society that depended greatly on cooperative behavior for survival. Partnerships and non-kin alliances became crucial during hunting seasons and during wars and feuds, but it was mostly based on the nuclear or extended family unit.
When bands came together, they were more geographical than political in nature, and while leaders or umialik were important in hunting, their power was not absolute.
The social fabric of Inuit society changed forever in the twentieth century, though the people have avoided the reservation system. Natives themselves, such as the Inupiat of Barrow and Shungnak voted against establishing the reservations that formed all over America in the 1930s.
During the mid-twentieth century, there was a great deal of competition for once-native lands, both from the private and public sector. In 1932 a petroleum reserve in the north was set aside, and then developed by the Navy and later by private companies. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) also wanted Inuit land.
In 1958, the AEC requested some 1600 square miles of land near Point Hope to create a deep-water port using an atomic explosion many times more powerful than that at Hiroshima. Some of the first political action taken by the Inuit was in opposition to this experiment. As a result, the plan, Project Chariot, was called off.
After their success against Project Chariot, Natives began to organize in a concerted way to protect their lands. In 1961, various village leaders formed the Inupiat Paitot (The People's Heritage Movement) to protect Inupiat lands. In 1963 the Northwest Alaska Native Association was formed under the leadership of Willie Hensley, later a state senator.
The Arctic Slope Association was formed in 1966. Both associations mirrored the activities of the statewide Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) which lobbied for Native rights and claims. Local villages and organizations throughout the state were filing claims for land not yet ceded to the government.
In 1968, with Congress beginning to review the situation, oil was discovered on the North Slope. Oil companies wanted to pipe the oil out via the port of Valdez, and negotiations were soon underway to settle Inuit and other Native claims.
The result was the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which created 12 regional for-profit corporations throughout the state. These corporations had title to surface and mineral rights of some 44 million acres.
Additionally, Natives would receive $962.5 million in compensation for the 335 million acres of the state which they no longer claimed. Thus, the way was paved for the construction of the Alaska pipeline.
As a result of ANCSA, all Alaskans with at least one-quarter Native blood would receive settlement money that would be managed by regional and village corporations. Alaskan Inuit villages then organized into several corporations in hopes of taking advantage of the opportunities of this legislation.
Amendments in 1980 to the Alaska National Interests Lands Conservation Act restoring Native rights to subsistence hunting and fishing, and in 1988, ensuring Native control of corporations, helped equalize ANCSA legislation. As of the 1990s, however, few of these corporations have managed to reach financial stability, and at least four have reported losses since 1971.
Inuit groups organized in the 1970s to see that high schools were built in their villages. In the Barrow region, local schools broke away from the Bureau of Indian Affairs administration and formed local boards of education more amenable to the teaching of Inupiaq language, history, and customs.
The North Slope Borough, formed in 1972, took over school administration in 1975, and the Northwest Arctic Borough, formed in 1986, did the same. These regional political structures are further sub-divided into villages with elected mayors and city councils. Slowly the Inuit of northern Alaska are trying to reclaim their heritage in the modern world.
Individual and Group Contributions - Martha Aiken (1926-) is an educator born in Barrow, Alaska, of Inupiat descent. Aiken has authored 17 bilingual books for the North Slope Borough School District, has translated 80 hymns for the Presbyterian Church, and has been a major contributor to an Inupiaq dictionary.
She has also served on the board of the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation. Sadie Brower Neakok (1916-) is an educator, community activist and magistrate, from Barrow. A full-time teacher for the BIA, Neakok was appointed by the State of Alaska to be a magistrate, and was instrumental in introducing the American legal system to the Inupiat.
Melvin Olanna (1941-) is an Inupiat sculptor and jewelry designer. Educated in Oregon and at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Olanna has had numerous individual and group exhibitions of his work, and has also won a number of Alaskan awards for the arts. A practitioner of the ancient carving traditions of the Inuit, Olanna brings this older design form together with modern forms.
He learned carving techniques from masters such as George Ahgupuk and Wilber Walluk, and by age 14 he was already supporting himself with his carving. Olanna's work typically shows broad planes, simple surfaces, and flowing curves similar to the work of Henry Moore.
He works in wood, ivory, whalebone, and bronze, and after a year in Europe he brought several tons of Cararra marble home with him to Suquamish. He and his wife helped found the Melvin Olanna Carving Center, dedicated to training young Inuit in their ancient traditions.
Joseph Senungetuk (1940-) is a printmaker and carver of Inupiat descent. An activist as artist, writer, and teacher, Senungetuk has devoted his life to Native issues and the revitalization of Alaskan arts. He grew up in Nome where an uncle first taught him to carve, then attended the University of Alaska in Fairbanks.
Senungetuk also wrote an autobiographical and historical book, Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle, the first book published by his publishing house. He spent many years in San Francisco where he concentrated on printmaking. Returning to Alaska he wrote a regular column for an Anchorage newspaper and also worked on sculpting.
Susie Bevins (1941-) is an Inupiat carver and mask maker. Born in remote Prudhoe Bay to an English trader and his Norwegian-Eskimo wife, Bevins moved to Barrow as an infant after her father died. At age 11 her family once again moved, this time to Anchorage. She studied art in Atlanta, Georgia, and Italy, and she is one of the best known Inuit artists of the day.
Her masks often speak of the split personality of Natives growing up in two cultures. Larry Ahvakana (1946-) is an Inupiat sculptor and mixed media artist who trained at the Institute of American Indian Art in Santa Fe and at the Cooper Union School of Arts in New York.
Ahvakana uses modern sculptural techniques blended with his Native heritage to create lasting pieces in stone and wood. His interpretations of Alaskan myth often appear in his art.
Howard Rock (1911-1976) was born in Point Hope, where in the 1960s he joined Inupiat Paitot to stop the government from using the locale as a nuclear test site. Rock became the editor of a newsletter formed to educate other Inuit about the dangers.
In 1962 this newsletter became the Tundra Times, with Rock serving as its editor until his death in 1976. In 1965, he helped organize the first Alaska Federated Natives meeting in Anchorage. Rock, who began life as a jewelry maker, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize the year before he died.
William L. Hensley (1941-), also known as Iggiagruk or "Big Hill," is an Inuit leader, co-founder of the Alaskan Federation of Natives, and state senator. Born in Kotzebue to a family of hunters and fishermen, Hensley left home for his education, attending a boarding school in Tennessee.
He earned a bachelor's degree from George Washington University in Washington, D.C., where he first became politicized about the conditions of his people in Alaska.
Returning to Alaska, he studied constitutional law at the University of Alaska. In 1966, Hensley became one of the founders of the AFN, which was instrumental in lobbying Washington for Native claims. Since that time he has played an active role in Alaskan politics and has been an untiring spokesperson for the rights of the Inuit.
He founded the Northwest Alaska Native Association and was instrumental in the development of the Red Dog Lead and Zinc Mine in northwest Alaska, the second largest zinc mine in the world.
Both a state senator and a representative, Hensley was honored with the National Public Service Award from the Rockefeller Foundation in 1980, the Governor's Award for Alaskan of the Year, 1981, and an Honorary Doctorate of Laws from the University of Alaska in Anchorage, 1981.
Read more: https://www.everyculture.com/multi/Ha-La/Inuit.html#ixzz6AkT9kezX
A provincial (a resident of one of the provinces) could receive citizenship for his loyalty or service to the state. By the time of the invasion of Italy by the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218 – 201 BCE) there had been some minor changes - residents of these allied communities had gained the right of conubium where the child of a Roman father and provincial mother was considered a Roman - the child was no longer considered illegitimate.
A provincial (a resident of one of the provinces) could receive citizenship for his loyalty or service to the state. Later, around 150 BCE, magistrates of these Latin towns or municipia acquired Roman citizenship. And, finally, any Latin who settled in the city of Rome could obtain citizenship.
As Rome acquired lands throughout the peninsula, tensions continued to grow in many of the communities outside Rome. These newly conquered people were demanding a change in their status.
While they could intermarry with Romans, make contracts and had free movement - civitas sine suffragio or citizenship without the vote - they still demanded more. They wanted what the citizens of the city had: optimo iure or citizenship with the vote.
The tribune Gaius Gracchus (122 -121 BCE) made a proposal that would have granted full citizenship to all of the Italian allies. Gaius, unfortunately, faced opposition from the most unlikely of allies - the nobility and the plebians - the latter feared the competition for food and jobs.
Unfortunately, Gaius’s other reform suggestions made him popular with some but the enemy of others (the Roman Senate). His death and the murder of 3,000 of his followers put an end to his proposition.
Change, however, was on the horizon. The Social Wars, or War of the Allies, would alter the status of the allies. While his fellow Romans in the Senate were making further attempts at restricting citizenship for the allied communities, the tribune M. Livius Drusus was proposing to grant them full and equal citizenship. In 91 BCE his assassination initiated the Social Wars (91 – 89 BCE) - one of the deadliest in all of Roman history. The Etruscans and Umbrians were threatening to secede.
Riots and unrest (even outside the Italian peninsula) soon followed. The Senate told the populace that if these people became citizens they would overrun the city. However, calmer minds prevailed and as a result, full citizenship was finally granted to all people (slaves excluded) in the entire Italian peninsula (at least initially) for those who had not taken up arms against Rome. Later, Julius Caesar, the dictator for life, would extend citizenship beyond Italy and grant it to the people of Spain and Gaul.
The definition of what is was to be Roman was changing; in fact, the idea of what was “Latin” was becoming, as one historian expressed, less ethnic and more political. And, in Rome, many of the old questions arose such as how were the existing institutions to deal with these new citizens.
These new citizens were to learn what it was to be called a Roman. Historian Tom Holland said that to be a Roman citizen meant that a person realized that he was truly free. However, there were stipulations placed on this new citizenship. The Roman citizen, whether inside or outside the city, must put aside the sense of the individual and focus on the good of the community.
In actuality, the acquisition of the right to vote by those outside the city had little meaning to all but the wealthy. Membership in the Roman assemblies was not done by election - it was a direct democracy. Voting was done by tribes, and all citizens were assigned to a particular tribe (often based on wealth) where each tribe voted as one.
However, to vote a person had to appear in person which was something only the wealthy could afford to do. But citizenship was not eternal. If necessary, an individual’s citizenship could be revoked; this latter condition was mostly reserved for criminals.
Every five years a citizen had to register himself at the Villa Publica for the census, declaring the name of his wife, the number of children, and all of his property and possessions (even his wife’s clothes and jewels were declared). Every Roman citizen believed the government had a right to know this information.
All of this data was reviewed and evaluated by the city’s magistrates (censors) who could “promote or demote each citizen according to his worth.” Tom Holland wrote on the value of the census, “Classes, centuries, and tribes, everything that enabled a citizen to be placed by his fellows, were all defined by the census.”
By 212 CE the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius, better known as Caracalla, took steps to make all male residents of the empire full citizens (the women in these areas had the same rights as Roman women); this proposal was called the Constitutio Antoniniana.
Many historians question the rationale for this sudden benevolent act. Some believe that he needed more tax revenue, and since only Roman citizens paid an inheritance tax, his purpose was clear. But in practice, by the early 3rd century CE the idea of citizenship and the “right to vote” was mostly irrelevant.
The duties of the emperor replaced the function of both the Senate and assemblies and voting rights were all but non-existent. In its place Rome became divided between two groups - the honestiores or the elite and the humilores, the lower sort - there was actually no legal distinction between the two classes.
Citizenship had always meant that an individual had a role in the affairs of state, but with the assassination of Caesar and the rise to power of his step-son Augustus - who the Senate awarded the title of the first citizen or princeps - the government was forever changed in Rome. Citizenship was no longer the prized possession that it once had been.
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Citizenship is and always has been a valued possession of any individual. When one studies the majority of ancient empires one finds that the concept of citizenship, in any form, was non-existent.
The people in these societies did not and could not participate in the affairs of their government. These governments were either theocratic or under the control of a non-elected sovereign, answerable to no one except himself. There was no representative body or elected officials.
The Athenians were among the first societies to have anything remotely close to our present-day concept of citizenship. Later, the Romans created a system of government that sought the participation of its citizenry.
Every citizen, women excluded, shared fully in all governmental activities with all of its rights, privileges, and responsibilities. It should be noted that Roman women were considered citizens; however, they had few, if any, legal rights.
After the collapse of the old monarchy and the foundation of the Republic, the control of Roman government was restricted to a handful of great families - the patricians, a word derived from patres or 'fathers'.
The remaining residents/citizens were called plebians, representing the poor as well as many of the city’s wealthy. Soon, however, these plebians or plebs began to resent their second-class status and rose up, demanding to participate in the affairs of state and exercise their rights as full citizens of Rome. After the threat of a work stoppage became a reality, the resulting compromise - the “Conflict of Orders” - brought into creation the Concilium Plebis or Council of the Plebs.
This representative body spoke for the plebians through a number of elected tribunes. It enacted laws that pertained initially to the plebians but eventually became binding to all citizens, including the patricians.
During the early days of the Republic, the Roman government was established with the primary goal of avoiding the return of a king. Its authority centered on a number of elected magistrates (consuls, praetors, quaestors and aediles), a Senate, and a number of smaller assemblies. This new concept of citizenship, however, did not mean full equality.
The differences between patrician and plebian still existed. In 450 BCE the creation of the Twelve Tables, the first Roman law code, established rules that governed, among other things, the relationship between the two classes.
The reward of citizenship only meant that an individual lived under the “rule of law” and had a vested interest in his government. One must wonder why there was this desire to vote or, in other words, to be a true Roman (civitas Romanus sum).
That is to say proudly “I am a Roman citizen.” The notion of Roman citizenship can best be represented in the logo - seen on documents, monuments and even the standards of the Roman legion - SPQR or Senatus Populus Que Romanus, the Senate and Roman People. The historian Tom Holland, in his book Rubicon, wrote that the right to vote was a sign of a person’s success.
To be a Roman citizen an individual was educated to “temper” his “competitive instincts” for the good of the people. For the typical Roman, the concept of “civitas” meant that he had to not only share in the joys of self-government but also suffer along in its sorrows and fears. Even the poorest of Roman citizens, the proletarii, were still represented (albeit with little effect) in the comitia centuriata.
Aside from the fact that women, although citizens, had no share in the politics of Rome, there was an even larger but significant portion of the population that resided behind the wall of the city and was not granted the rights of citizenship - the slaves. Slavery was not uncommon in the ancient world and existed long before the Republic.
It could be found in the empires of Assyria and Babylon as well as in Greece. As with other civilizations, in Rome, many of the slaves came from military conquests. Slavery allowed many of the wealthy citizens to participate in the politics of running the empire. Slaves served a variety of functions.
They were farmers, miners, domestic servants, entertainers and even teachers. However, unlike the slaves of Greece, a Roman slave lived in a unique society: he could earn or buy his freedom or liberti and enjoy the benefits of citizenship, gaining wealth and power; his children could even hold public office.
With the growth of Rome and its desire to extend its boundaries beyond the city walls, the concept of Roman citizenship changed. This growth begged the question: how were these newly conquered people to be treated? Were they to become Roman citizens?
Were they to be considered equals? Despite the fact that Rome had always been a city of immigrants, the acquisition of citizenship for a resident of Rome was different for the person outside of Rome. As one historian stated, there was a difference between granting citizenship to an individual than to an entire people.
After the conquest of the Latins and the Samnites, the questions of “rights” and “privileges” came into play. While they continued to be citizens of their own communities, these new allies wanted the same freedoms as all Romans.
Although they received many benefits from their position as an ally such as protection from invasion, a share of plunder from a military engagement and the ability to make economic agreements, they were not treated as true citizens of the Republic.
There were disadvantages: they had to pay tribute to Rome as well as provide soldiers, indeed, by 100 BCE allies composed two-thirds of the Roman army. They subsisted in a vague second-class status called ius Latii.
They had many of the benefits of a citizen but without representation in any of the city’s assemblies. To be a true and equal citizen, in short, to be a Roman, an individual needed to exercise his right to vote. A provincial (a resident of one of the provinces) could receive citizenship for his loyalty or service to the state.
By the time of the invasion of Italy by the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218 – 201 BCE) there had been some minor changes - residents of these allied communities had gained the right of conubium where the child of a Roman father and provincial mother was considered a Roman - the child was no longer considered illegitimate.
A provincial (a resident of one of the provinces) could receive citizenship for his loyalty or service to the state. Later, around 150 BCE, magistrates of these Latin towns or municipia acquired Roman citizenship. And, finally, any Latin who settled in the city of Rome could obtain citizenship.
As Rome acquired lands throughout the peninsula, tensions continued to grow in many of the communities outside Rome. These newly conquered people were demanding a change in their status.
While they could intermarry with Romans, make contracts and had free movement - civitas sine suffragio or citizenship without the vote - they still demanded more. They wanted what the citizens of the city had: optimo iure or citizenship with the vote.
The tribune Gaius Gracchus (122 -121 BCE) made a proposal that would have granted full citizenship to all of the Italian allies. Gaius, unfortunately, faced opposition from the most unlikely of allies - the nobility and the plebians - the latter feared the competition for food and jobs.
Unfortunately, Gaius’s other reform suggestions made him popular with some but the enemy of others (the Roman Senate). His death and the murder of 3,000 of his followers put an end to his proposition.
Change, however, was on the horizon. The Social Wars, or War of the Allies, would alter the status of the allies. While his fellow Romans in the Senate were making further attempts at restricting citizenship for the allied communities, the tribune M. Livius Drusus was proposing to grant them full and equal citizenship. In 91 BCE his assassination initiated the Social Wars (91 – 89 BCE) - one of the deadliest in all of Roman history.
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The Etruscans and Umbrians were threatening to secede. Riots and unrest (even outside the Italian peninsula) soon followed. The Senate told the populace that if these people became citizens they would overrun the city.
However, calmer minds prevailed and as a result, full citizenship was finally granted to all people (slaves excluded) in the entire Italian peninsula (at least initially) for those who had not taken up arms against Rome. Later, Julius Caesar, the dictator for life, would extend citizenship beyond Italy and grant it to the people of Spain and Gaul.
The definition of what is was to be Roman was changing; in fact, the idea of what was “Latin” was becoming, as one historian expressed, less ethnic and more political. And, in Rome, many of the old questions arose such as how were the existing institutions to deal with these new citizens. These new citizens were to learn what it was to be called a Roman.
Historian Tom Holland said that to be a Roman citizen meant that a person realized that he was truly free. However, there were stipulations placed on this new citizenship. The Roman citizen, whether inside or outside the city, must put aside the sense of the individual and focus on the good of the community.
In actuality, the acquisition of the right to vote by those outside the city had little meaning to all but the wealthy. Membership in the Roman assemblies was not done by election - it was a direct democracy. Voting was done by tribes, and all citizens were assigned to a particular tribe (often based on wealth) where each tribe voted as one.
However, to vote a person had to appear in person which was something only the wealthy could afford to do. But citizenship was not eternal. If necessary, an individual’s citizenship could be revoked; this latter condition was mostly reserved for criminals.
Every five years a citizen had to register himself at the Villa Publica for the census, declaring the name of his wife, the number of children, and all of his property and possessions (even his wife’s clothes and jewels were declared). Every Roman citizen believed the government had a right to know this information.
All of this data was reviewed and evaluated by the city’s magistrates (censors) who could “promote or demote each citizen according to his worth.” Tom Holland wrote on the value of the census, “Classes, centuries, and tribes, everything that enabled a citizen to be placed by his fellows, were all defined by the census.”
By 212 CE the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius, better known as Caracalla, took steps to make all male residents of the empire full citizens (the women in these areas had the same rights as Roman women); this proposal was called the Constitutio Antoniniana.
Many historians question the rationale for this sudden benevolent act. Some believe that he needed more tax revenue, and since only Roman citizens paid an inheritance tax, his purpose was clear.
But in practice, by the early 3rd century CE the idea of citizenship and the “right to vote” was mostly irrelevant. The duties of the emperor replaced the function of both the Senate and assemblies and voting rights were all but non-existent.
In its place Rome became divided between two groups - the honestiores or the elite and the humilores, the lower sort - there was actually no legal distinction between the two classes.
Citizenship had always meant that an individual had a role in the affairs of state, but with the assassination of Caesar and the rise to power of his step-son Augustus - who the Senate awarded the title of the first citizen or princeps - the government was forever changed in Rome. Citizenship was no longer the prized possession that it once had been.
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First contract in the FFL is five (5) years. No ifs, hows and buts. They own you for five years of your life once you’re in. The only way to bail out is if they kick you out, which would be for pretty serious reasons, in which case you may wish for the second reason, that of dying in service, sickness, accident, training, KIA, etc.
The other reasons would be that you are invalided out of service: severe medical issue or WIA, which would make you eligible for French citizenship, a “Français par le sang versé”, literally “French by the blood shed”, or you may opt for desertion, in which case, again, you may wish for reason number two, if they ever catch up with you ; )
As to danger, there are certainly more sedate ways to earn your keep such as living in the suburbs, commuting back and forth to work, living in a house, with a garden and a white picket fence, a dog, 2 or 3 kids… But again, you may go unscathed through 5 years in the FFL or die in a car crash on the highway…
Guard duty is part and parcel of military life, in the FFL or any other soldiering outfit. They do that in Guyana but not only. This is the place where the FFL trains for jungle warfare and survival.
If you don’t like to be permanently wet, hot, hungry, sleepless, exhausted, running, crawling, jumping in the mud, if you are averse to leeches, spiders, mosquitoes, snakes, and to the 1001 little critters trying to get a piece of you, if you are sensitive to jungle rot, infection, swamp fever and 90% humidity, all the time, then think of this garden where the most arduous task would be to mow the lawn on the weekends and the most hazardous situation would be to run out of beer or charcoal for the barbecue.
Careful what you wish for, you may well get it. Stay strong. I was in 2reg mountain troop. So earned a base salary of 1200 euros per month. There is bonus pay for terrain time and for missions etc that get paid at certain intervals in the year. They tend to hold back and stagger bonus pay to discourage desertions.
If you go 2rep you get more money than the other regiments, about 1800 starting. Rep has a lot more sketch than the other regiments but missions and pay are better ;) let's be honest if your not on the run and have prospects in the country your coming from then your not joining the legion for the money. It's an experience lol. Be aware though it's not all commando training lol. Lots of cleaning and proving yourself first.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-minimum-service-time-for-the-French-Foreign-Legion
Pre-Clovis culture is a term used by archaeologists to refer to what is considered by most scholars (see discussion below) the founding populations of the Americas. The reason they are called pre-Clovis, rather than some more specific term, is that the culture remained controversial for some 20 years after their first discovery.
Up until the identification of pre-Clovis, the first absolutely agreed-upon culture in the Americas was a Paleoindian culture called Clovis, after the type site discovered in New Mexico in the 1920s.
Sites identified as Clovis were occupied between ~13,400-12,800 calendar years ago (cal BP), and the sites reflected a fairly uniform living strategy, that of predation on now-extinct megafauna, including mammoths, mastodons, wild horses, and bison, but supported by smaller game and plant foods.
There was always a small contingent of the Americanist scholars who supported claims of archaeological sites of ages dating between 15,000 to as much 100,000 years ago: but these were few, and the evidence was deeply flawed. It is useful to bear in mind that Clovis itself as a Pleistocene culture was widely disparaged when it was first announced in the 1920s.
However, beginning in the 1970s or so, sites predating Clovis began to be discovered in North America (such as Meadowcroft Rockshelter and Cactus Hill), and South America (Monte Verde).
These sites, now classified Pre-Clovis, were a few thousand years older than Clovis, and they seemed to identify a broader-range lifestyle, more approaching Archaic period hunter-gatherers.
Evidence for any pre-Clovis sites remained widely discounted among mainstream archaeologists until about 1999 when a conference in Santa Fe, New Mexico called "Clovis and Beyond" was held presenting some of the emerging evidence.
One fairly recent discovery appears to link the Western Stemmed Tradition, a stemmed point stone tool complex in the Great Basin and Columbia Plateau to pre-Clovis and the Pacific Coast Migration Model. Excavations at Paisley Cave in Oregon have recovered radiocarbon dates and DNA from human coprolites which predate Clovis.
Pre-Clovis Lifestyles - Archaeological evidence from pre-Clovis sites continues to grow. Much of what these sites contain suggests the pre-Clovis people had a lifestyle that was based on a combination of hunting, gathering, and fishing.
Evidence for pre-Clovis use of bone tools, and for the use of nets and fabrics has also been discovered. Rare sites indicate that pre-Clovis people sometimes lived in clusters of huts.
Much of the evidence seems to suggest a marine lifestyle, at least along the coastlines; and some sites within the interior show a partial reliance on large-bodied mammals.
Research also focuses on migration pathways into the Americas. Most archaeologists still favor the Bering Strait crossing from northeastern Asia: climatic events of that era restricted entry into Beringia and out of Beringia and into the North American continent.
For pre-Clovis, the Mackenzie River Ice-Free Corridor was not open early enough. Scholars have hypothesized instead that the earliest colonists followed the coastlines to enter and explore the Americas, a theory known as the Pacific Coast Migration Model (PCMM)
Although evidence supporting the PCMM and the existence of pre-Clovis has grown since 1999, few coastal Pre-Clovis sites have been found to date. Coastal sites are likely inundated since the sea level has done nothing but rise since the Last Glacial Maximum.
In addition, there are some scholars within the academic community who remain skeptical about pre-Clovis. In 2017, a special issue of the journal Quaternary International based on a 2016 symposium at the Society for American Archaeology meetings presented several arguments dismissing pre-Clovis theoretical underpinnings. Not all the papers denied pre-Clovis sites, but several did.
Among the papers, some of the scholars asserted that Clovis was, in fact, the first colonizers of the Americas and that genomic studies of the Anzick burials (which share DNA with modern Native American groups) prove that. Others suggest that the Ice-Free Corridor would still have been usable if unpleasant entryway for the earliest colonists.
Still others argue that the Beringian standstill hypothesis is incorrect and that there simply were no people in the Americas prior to the Last Glacial Maximum. Archaeologist Jesse Tune and colleagues have suggested that all of the so-called pre-Clovis sites are made up of geo-facts, micro-debitage too small to be confidently assigned to human manufacture.
It is undoubtedly true that pre-Clovis sites are still relatively few in number compared to Clovis. Further, pre-Clovis technology seems extremely varied, especially compared to Clovis which is so strikingly identifiable. Occupation dates on pre-Clovis sites vary between 14,000 cal BP to 20,000 and more. That's an issue that needs to be addressed.
It is difficult to say today what percentage of archaeologists or other scholars support pre-Clovis as a reality versus Clovis First arguments. In 2012, anthropologist Amber Wheat conducted a systematic survey of 133 scholars about this issue. Most (67 percent) were prepared to accept the validity of at least one of the pre-Clovis sites (Monte Verde).
When asked about migratory paths, 86 percent selected the "coastal migration" path and 65 percent the "ice-free corridor." A total of 58 percent said people arrived in the American continents before 15,000 cal BP, which implies by definition pre-Clovis.
In short, Wheat's survey, despite what has been said to the contrary, suggests that in 2012, most scholars in the sample were willing to accept some evidence for pre-Clovis, even if it wasn't an overwhelming majority or whole-hearted support. Since that time, most of the published scholarship on pre-Clovis has been on the new evidence, rather than disputing their validity.
Surveys are a snapshot of the moment, and the research into coastal sites has not stood still since that time. Science moves slowly, one might even say glacially, but it does move.
https://www.thoughtco.com/guide-to-the-pre-clovis-americas-173068
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Big Diomede Island (located in Russian territory) and Little Diomede Island (located in Alaska) sit in the middle of the Bering Strait only a little over two miles apart. They form the closest points of land between Russia and the United States.
Astart, Conceiving-Womb. 1ST*T. Alternate meanings: Womb, That-Which-Issues-from-the-Womb, She-of-the-Womb, The-Inducer, {Conceiver}. [to Whom the tenth day of December, day 344, is dedicated]
Geography/Culture: Syro-Palestinian. Semitic: Syria. She had temples at Sidon (by the 4th c. BC. She had replaced Asherah as the Chief Goddess) and Tyre, from whence Her worship was transplanted to Carthage; Palestine, Solomon built a high place for Her in Jerusalem; Egypt, temple at Memphis; Phonecia; Philistine. As sea Goddess She had temples all along the Palestinian coast.
Description: Great Goddess of fertile abundance, sexuality, love, reproduction, fertility magic, {perhaps the moon}, the sea, the sky and immortality; Lady of Heaven; Most beautiful of heavenly bodies; She Who conceives but does not bear; Symbol of female fertility; Matron of the hunt; {perhaps also Goddess of war}.
Perhaps originally a Goddess of sheep. The kings of Sidon were Her priests and their consorts Her priestesses. She was adopted in Egypt as Goddess of war: She Who is clad in terror; Mistress of Horses; Mother of humanity; Shield of the Pharoah. By the 18th Dynasty She had become also a Goddess of healing.
Pigs Are The 4th Most Intelligent Animal. Pigs are believed to be one of most intelligent animals, following chimps, dolphins, and elephants. We might think our dogs are the smartest animals when the can roll over or shake on command, but they surpass even man's best friend.
To Whom Sacred: lily; alder (used in rites for Astart and Her son); (in Egypt -- date-palm); snake; sheep; Astart's of the flock (ie lambs); gazelle (or antelope); lionness; horse; dove; the planet Venus; full moon and crescent (possibly a misinterpretation of Isis' sundisk and cows-horns).
Iconography: She is sometimes horned, which may signify the moon, but more probably rams horns. Plaques of clay, generally oval, bearing the impress (from a pottery or metal mold) of a nude figure, arms often upraised, grasping lily stalks, or snakes, or both.
Head adorned with two spiral hathor ringlets, or She wears a Philistine helmet. Sometimes arms hanging down, or with hands clasped beneath Her protruding navel. Often portrayed with the head of a lionness surmounted by the sun disk.
She stood on a chariot drawn by four horses. Sometimes protrayed as armed with shield and club, riding a horse. Male Associates: consort, Il, {Lord}, (obviously a variant of El); son, the god of fire. Often closely associated with and perhaps, originally, a title of Anath, {Strength-of-Life}.
It is not clear whether Astart and Anath are two Goddesses or one with two names. She bequested more than one of Her traits to Aphrodite, {Froth-of-Replication}, and perhaps, in a corrupted form, Her name. Daughter of Asherah, Lady-of-the-Sea, though sometimes Their names are used interchangeably. Variant: Ashtar, ----, below.
Her full Sidonian name is Ashtart-Shem-Baal, Ashtart-of-the-Name-of-Baal. The biblical name for Her is Ashtoreth, ----below. The Egyptians sometimes referred to Her as: Astar-of-Syria. The variant Astarte is said to be the Greek form of Her name. She is also called Elat, Goddess, (Who is linked with Lat, Goddess), in Ras Shamrah texts.
At Sidon She was called Europe, She-of-the-Broad-Face. At Corinth Hera, Our-Lady, was identified with Her. In Troy, as Goddess of the sea She was called: Hesione, Queen-of-Asia, below. She is said to be analogous in Her name and attributes to Ishtar, Light-giving. She is also called Kedeshet, ---, a variant of Qadesh, Holy-One, Who is linked with Anath, {Strength-of-Life}.
Her worship influenced the worship of Mary, {Sea-Queen}. Her alternate Hebraic name, Naamah, Pleasant, is also an alternate name for Eve, Mother-of-All-Life, and as such Astart, Conceiving-Womb, became a demoness. See also Memphis, White-Walls, Who is linked with Egyptian Neith, World-Weaver. {I've lost the significance of this cross-reference.}
Tamar, Date-Palm, to Whom the date-palm is also sacred, may be an aspect of Her.
She was also worshiped in Carthage, and many suggest that Cathagian Tanith, {Goddess-of-Heaven}, from Phoenicia, is simply another name for Astart, Conceiving-Womb. But though Tanith may have assimilated some of Her qualities, there are notably differences between the two Goddesses.
http://www.holladaypaganism.com/goddesses/cyclopedia/a/ASTART.HTM
Andromeda, Ruler-of-Men. 1NDR0M]D1. Alternate meaning: Human-Sacrifice. Geography/Culture: Philistine, Greek. Description: Goddess of sea-shore rocks and cliffs, the sea itself and perhaps, the moon under seige by the demon of darkness; Ancestress of the Persidae at Tiryns in Argos; She Who gives Herself in sacrifice for Her people. To Whom Sacred: rock (or sea-cliff) to which She was chained); jewels; chain; the constellation Andromeda.
Male Associates: consort (and rescuer), Perseus, Destroyer; sons Alcaeus, Mighty-One, Electryon, Beaming, Heleus, The-Sun, Mestor, `Counsellor', Perses, Destroyer and Sthenelus, Strong-Forcer-Back.
Titles/Variants, etc: Variant: Andromena. A Greek version of Astart, Conceiving-Womb, as Goddess of the sea. In Her myth (in which She is portrayed as mortal), Andromeda, Ruler-of-Men, was transformed into the constellation Andromeda by Athene, I-Have-Come-From-Myself.
Daughter of Cassiopeia, Cassia-Juice, below. Mother of Gorgophone, Gorgon-Death, {but isn't -phone more often translated as 'voice'? See also note about Andromeda, currently linked with Athene, I-Have-Come-From-Myself.
Consider putting the main reference under Gorgones, and including the note there. At the moment the x-ref to Gorgophone from the Cyclopedia Index is to Astart, Conceiving-Womb, this file.}
Between 2000 and 2019, for instance, at least 850,000 pangolins were trafficked internationally, a recent study found. Every species of pangolin is threatened with extinction. Pangolins are mammals of the order Pholidota (from Ancient Greek φολῐ́ς, "horny scale"). The one extant family, Manidae, has three genera: Manis, Phataginus and Smutsia. Manis comprises the four species found in Asia, while Phataginus and Smutsia each include two species living in Sub-Saharan Africa. These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). A number of extinct pangolin species are also known. Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin; they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring, which they raise for about two years. Pangolins are threatened by poaching (for their meat and scales, which are used in Chinese traditional medicine for a variety of ailments including excessive anxiety and hysterical crying in children, women thought to be possessed by devils and ogres, malarial fever, and deafness[3]) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world. As of January 2020, of the eight species of pangolin, three (Manis culionensis, M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are listed as critically endangered, three (Phataginus tricuspis, Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea) are listed as endangered and two (Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii) are listed as vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangolin
She appears to be equivalent to Hesione, Queen-of-Asia, below. There are similarities between Her myth and that of Psyche, World-Soul. It has been suggested that Her myth was deduced from a Palestinian icon of Marduk, ----,Tiamat, Primeval-Being.
Source: Encyc Brit:Andromeda; Graves GMv1 244; ibed GMv2 174, 244, index; Walker WEMS 35; Kravitz WWGRM 24.
Ashtoreth, ----.1$T4R]3. Geography/Culture: The town Ashtoreth-Karnim (or Ashtoresth-Qarnaim), ', in Gilead, is named after Her. Linguistic Note: Ashtoroth, (some say Ashtaroth), is the plural of Ashtoreth. It is said that the vocalization suggests {Hebraic?} bosheth, shame.
Titles/Variants, etc: This is a title of Anath, {Strength-of-Life}. She is said to be the Syrian equivalent of Greek Aphrodite, Froth-of-Replication. Probable transliteration variant: Ashtaroth -- possibly the origin of Aphrodite's name. Biblical name of opprobrium for Astart, Conceiving-Womb, above. Compare with Belial, ----, a variant of Sumerian, Babylonian Belili, Great-Lady, Who is linked with Zarpanit, Silver-Shining.
Source: Ency Brit v2 166; Graves GMv1 80; Patai HG 42-51.
Ashtar, ----.1$T* Geography/Culture: Moabite. Mentioned on Moabite stone ca. 830 BC. Linguistic Note: the absence of the feminine termination occurs similarly in Ishtar. The old South Arabian phonetic equivalent 'Athtar' is, however, a male deity. Male Associate: consort Chemosh, ----.
Titles/Variants, etc: Possible variant: Mesopotamian Ashdar, 1$D*. I also find: Astar, 1ST*, ----. Mesopotamian. The name Atargatis, Opportune-Time, who is linked with Derceto, {Great-Whale}, may be related to the male Athtar.
See also Hat-Hor, House-of-Horus, and Her name variants Athor, and Athyr. But Ashtar, Ashdar, Astar, Athtar and Atthar could equally well be various dialectic and or transliteration variants of Ishtar, Light-Giving, couldn't they? Cassiopeia, Cassia-Juice. K*SYOPA1. Geography/Culture: Greek? Description: She Whose boast that She and Her Daughters were fairer than the Nereides, Wet-Ones, provoked Poseidon, ----, to send a sea-monster, to ravage the coast of Ethiopia. It was to this monster that Andromeda, Ruler-of-Men, was offered as propitiary sacrifice.
To Whom Sacred: the constellation Cassiopeia. Male Associates: consort Cepheus, Gardener, Ethiopian king of Joppa. Son, Atymnius, Insatiate-of-Heroic-Praise by Zeus. Titles/Variants, etc: Mother of Andromeda, Ruler-of-Men, above. Variant, Cassiope. Source: Kravitz WWGRM 24, 53. Hesione, Queen-of-Asia. H]SYONA.
Geography/Culture: Troy. Linguistic Note: see Anna linguistic notes concerning the element -one. Thus one is left with the element hesi-, which is presumably etymologically related to the word Asia. Male Associate: She is said to have been rescued from a sea-monster by: Hercules, ----. {Is this a reference to Hercules-Melkarth?}
Titles/Variants, etc: Perhaps equivalent to Andromeda, Ruler-of-Men, above. Perhaps to be identified with Roman Asia, Ag6, ----, though She, Asia, is described by Vermeule simply as a geographical personification.
Title of Astart, (above), Conceiving-Womb, as Goddess of the sea. Daughter of masculinised Cotytto, Cup-of-Life, who is linked with Bendis, {Wave-of-the-Deep}. The Roman Asia, ----, may be related to Greek Asia, *SY1, ----, one of the Oceanides, Daughters-of-the-Swift-Queen, (Who are linked with Thetis, Disposer), Who may Herself be a belittled form of Hesione, Queen-of-Asia.
http://www.holladaypaganism.com/goddesses/cyclopedia/a/ASTART.HTM
In the hot mediterranean climate, using a colonnade [row of columns] instead of a wall meant that light and air could reach deeper into the building. Romans picked up on the idea and built their marketplaces with long open breezeways and colonnaded walls.
For more symbolic support, the Greeks came up with the Caryatid and the Atlas or Telemon. Whether it was purely decorative or had temple specific meanings I am not clear on. The females are Caryatid and the male are Telemon, but sometimes called Atlas [plural]. Most of the telemon I just looked at were at least Renesance or later, this one is in Ohio despite the decrepit appearance.
In the Greek temple above from the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, I believe the caryatids were various goddesses or the helpers of goddesses of Virtue, Truth, etc etc.
https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Greek-temples-have-so-many-columns-in-their-buildings-Did-they-have-some-symbolic-meaning-aside-from-structural-support
Affectionate, playful, and intelligent—the Xoloitzcuintli has it all. Except for hair, that is. Xolos carry a dominant hairless trait, which means they're often bald aside from a little hair on the head or tail. There is a coated variety, and both hairless and coated Xolos can be born in the same litter.
This breed is an ancient one, and was considered a protector who could lead spirits on their journey to the underworld, ward off evil spirits, and protect the home. This rare breed is a character—a sense of humor is required with the Xolo.
The Xoloitzcuintli is the proper name for the Mexican Hairless Dog; other names include Xoloitzquintle, Xolito, and Xolo. The name is pronounced show-loh-eets-KWEENT-lee. The plural of the name is Xoloitzcuintin, but Xolos is also acceptable.
Coat – Xoloitzcuintlin may be hairless or coated. Hairless varieties may have some coarse hair on the head and tail, and usually have solid-colored, thick, warm skin. Coated varieties have a short, usually solid-colored coat. Hairless and coated varieties may be born in the same litter. Though no dog truly possesses zero risk of causing a reaction in allergic people, Xolos are considered a hypoallergenic breed.
Toy: 10-15 pounds
Miniature: 15-30 pounds
Standard: 30-55 pounds
The Xoloitzcuintli should sport a natural appearance with a clean, graceful outline. The breed may be hairless or coated. The hairless Xolo is bald with hair allowed atop the head and tail, while the coated variety has a short, flat coat. The Xolo is rectangular, and taller than she is long.
She bears a thoughtful expression, with wrinkles allowed on the head. Her body should be muscular, with a rounded rib shape. The low-set tail may be carried in a curve while in action, but never over the back.
Hairlessness often means missing teeth or improper bites, while coated Xolos will usually have a full set of teeth. The ears should be high set and bat-like, never dropped. Three sizes—toy, miniature, and standard—are all included in this breed standard. – AKC Breed Standards.
An ancient breed, the Xoloitzcuintli developed 3,500 years or more ago—without the selective breeding that guides most breed development. The Xolo is named for the ancient Aztec god Xolotl, who was associated with fire, lightning, and death. Dogs were said to accompany the dog-headed Xolotl nightly to protect the sun on its journey through Mictlán, the underworld.
Because of the strong connection with the god of death, ancient civilizations regarded the Xolo as a sacred companion who would lead loved ones through the underworld and into the next world. The Xolo was considered to have healing powers as well.
Christopher Columbus wrote of these hairless dogs in the 15th century, and may have brought some back to Europe. And Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera kept Xolos and featured them often in their art.
The American Kennel Club first recognized the type as the Mexican Hairless Dog in 1887, but due to the scarcity of the breed removed it from the stud book in 1959. After an effort to revive the Xoloitzcuintli, the AKC readmitted it into the Miscellaneous Group in 2010, then into the Non-Sporting Group in 2011. Dante the Xoloitzcuintli accompanied Miguel during his journey through the underworld in the 2017 movie Coco.
https://www.orvis.com/xoloitzcuintli
The Xoloitzcuintli is a 3,000-year old dog. The ancient dog of the Aztecs, it is also known as Mexican hairless dog. This alert and loyal dog actually comes in hairless and coated varieties in three different sizes.
The Aztecs, Mayans, Toltecs, and other groups considered the Xolo a sacred dog. The history of this Mexican national treasure goes back 3,000 years. According to Aztec mythology, the god Xolotl made the Xoloitzcuintli using a sliver of the Bone of Life, the one used to make all mankind.
The Aztecs named the dog after the god Xolotl, which has the head of a dog. Columbus and other European explorers mention the presence of these “strange hairless dogs” in their journals. The Mexican hairless dog was usually sacrificed with their owner when this one died to serve as a protective guide in the afterlife.
The Mexican hairless dog is very similar in appearance to the Pharaoh Hound. This dog has been molded by natural selection instead of human selective breeding. They range in size from about 10 to 50 lb (4 to 20 kg).
Their body is sleek, a long neck, almond-shaped eyes, and large bat-like ears. The most noticeable characteristic of the Xolo is the dominant trait of hairlessness. The coated variety represents the original dog before a mutation caused dogs to be born hairless. They are the recessive manifestation of the gene.
The Xolo may vary in color between several shades of black, blue, and red. This dog has not seen his personality altered despite the years. This ‘primitive’ temperament includes high intelligence, high energy, strong social and hunting instincts, inquisitiveness, and highly intelligent. They take their watchdog job seriously and will only bark when necessary.
Caring for a Mexican hairless dog - The Xolos are very tranquil around the house. However, they do enjoy long walks and upbeat play as they are very energetic. The young ones need to steam off the excess of energy and therefore require more play time.
As for grooming, the coated version’s hair is rather short and required no more than the occasional hair brushing. Xolos need consistent and firm training. Train him using positive reinforcement. He is a very intelligent dog but he is a good manipulator.
They were popular “doctors” in their native Mexico and Central America as their heat would help patients with arthritis or other ailments. Pronounced the name show-low-etz-queent-lee. This dog could easily be the first descendant of dogs in North America as well as one of the first dogs on the continent.
https://www.dogalize.com/2018/07/xoloitzcuintli-mexican-hairless-dog/
We use Lime mortar on our modern stone structure repairs and building work. Lime mortar has better properties than straight concrete mortar. These qualities help structures withstand weathering and aging better than before.
If your stonework has an ordinary concrete mortar between the stones, you will have probably noticed cracking, pitting and crumbling. Over time, concrete struggles to maintain its hold.
So there are a number of extra benefits for adding lime to mortar: By adding hydrated lime to the mortar mix, the mortar has a greater plasticity. This means that we find the mortar easier to work with and shape for an elegant finish.
By adding water to the lime mortar mix, this activates the calcium oxide in the lime. But this does not turn the mix into putty or a paste. So the mix becomes more workable and less “slushy” which also helps keep the stones clean and the immediate area clean.
The lime in the mortar allows the cement and sand mixture to remain strong. This is important to stop the mortar from crumbling over time. So the lime-based mortar is able to withstand more from the harsh elements like freezing and heating. Mother Nature cannot yield her damaging erosion as easily.
Traditional concrete only mixes were prone to taking on moisture from the atmosphere. This caused the mortar to expand and contract as it heated and cooled. Also the water in the mortar would be susceptible to freezing. All this would mean your mortar, over time, would crumble.
Lime mortar reduces this water intake and reduces the chances of crumbling. So your new lime pointing will last longer from the effects of moisture. As the mortar with lime has greater waterproofing, this has the added bonus of withstanding shrink cracking.
As mortar expands and shrinks due to the freezing and heating of moisture, the mortar will crack over time as it shrinks back down. This cracking can spread as more moisture soaks into the mortar, which will eventually lead to stones moving and they will eventually fall. So lime helps maintain the integrity of your new stone structures for many years to come.
https://stonemasonsedinburgh.com/use-lime-mortar-versus-concrete-mortar/
Over its lifetime of about 25 years, an Arctic tern can fly nearly 3 times the distance from the Earth to the moon. The bird that flies farthest is the Arctic tern, an elegant white seabird. This bird also sees more daylight than any other.
The Arctic tern breeds on the shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere summer. And it feeds over the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere half a year later – in Southern Hemisphere summer. So, like many birds, this bird flies great distances every year to maintain its life of endless summertime. North American Arctic terns fly about 24,000 miles (40,000 km) each year.
That’s a distance about equal to the distance around the Earth. An Arctic tern can live for 25 years, so in its life-long quest for summer it can fly a million kilometers (620,000 miles) – nearly three times the distance from the Earth to the moon.
By the way, there are about 120 migratory bird species with populations in the United States and south of the equator. Most of these species cross the equator during migration. For example, the red knot flies from New England to far southern South America.
Other birds stay in one hemisphere, but go farther. For example, the wandering albatross spends most of its life aloft, circling the world over the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. It stops only to breed on storm-swept islands near Antarctica.
A wandering albatross might fly 30,000 kilometers – that’s 18,000 miles – between breedings. So while the Arctic tern flies farthest of all birds, there are other bird species that come in a close second! Bottom line: The Arctic tern is the bird that migrates the farthest.
https://earthsky.org/earth/which-bird-migrates-the-farthest
The effect of phytic acid on iron absorption has been thoroughly studied. As evident in a study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, as phytic acid increases, it has a diminishing impact on iron while inhibiting its absorption.
This applies to almost every major mineral including zinc--one of the most important minerals for the human body. Two billion people may now have zinc deficiency. Phytates bind to zinc and thereby decrease its bioavailability. Phytic acid levels in soy reduce assimilation of calcium, magnesium, copper, iron and zinc.
Most tofu is unfermented. Phytates in unfermented soy products such as tofu actually obstruct absorption of protein and four key minerals: calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. In their natural form, soybeans contain phytochemicals with toxic effects on the human body.
The three major anti-nutrients are phytates, enzyme inhibitors and goitrogens. These anti-nutrients are the way nature protects the soybean plant so that it can live long enough to effectively reproduce.
They function as the immune system of the plant, offering protection from the radiation of the sun, and from invasion by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. They make the soybean plant unappetizing to foraging animals.
All plants have some anti-nutrient properties, but the soybean plant is especially rich in these chemicals. If they are not removed by extensive preparation such as fermentation or soaking, soybeans are one of the worst foods a person can eat. The net protein utilization of unfermented soy is 61 which quite low.
The most common soy (99%) sold at major grocery retailers in soy milks and processed foods such as tofu is unfermented soy. It is deadly. Unfermented soy has been linked to digestive distress, immune system breakdown, PMS, endometriosis, reproductive problems for men and women, allergies, ADD and ADHD, higher risk of heart disease and cancer, malnutrition, and loss of libido.
Fermented sources of soy such as natto, miso, tempeh and some fermented tofus are likely the only types of soy that should be consumed by humans and that's only if you can get around the crap shoot that they're non-GMO and organic (which there is no guarantee despite labeling).
When food is eaten, digestive enzymes such as amylase lipase and protease are secreted into the digestive tract to help break it down and free nutrients for assimilation into the body.
The high content of enzyme inhibitors such as trypsin in unfermented soybeans interferes with this process and makes carbohydrates and proteins from soybeans impossible to completely digest.
When foods are not completely digested because of enzyme inhibitors, bacteria in the large intestine try to do the job, and this can cause discomfort, bloating, and embarrassment.
Anyone with naturally low levels of digestive enzymes such as elderly people would suffer the most from the enzyme inhibiting action of soy. In precipitated products, enzyme inhibitors concentrate in the soaking liquid rather than in the curd. Thus, in tofu and bean curd, growth depressants are reduced in quantity but not completely eliminated.
https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/?tab=wm&ogbl#inbox/FMfcgxwGCbKKqvDQNvPmKWTWNZFJPgrN
Everything around us has its own vibration and that kind of food we take depends on the functioning of our body, our spiritual, mental and medical health, our thoughts, moods, feelings and behavior.
Foods that contribute to our mood and happiness, positive thoughts, dynamism and enthusiasm of life and the inner and outer peace is the food of vegetable origin rich in vitamins and minerals, then, whole grains, rich in Carbohydrates, nuts and seeds.
Foods that contain too much protein and fat, especially animal origin, which are chiefly found in meat and fish, affect the slowness, sluggishness and laziness of the body, because the very process of digestion and assimilation slower.
Excessive intake of these nutrients can cause nervousness, aggression, depression and anxiety, especially if you consume meat that is organic origin. The human body is not suited for processing by the system (fork), or by the digestive system (stomach and intestines) or eating less meat.
After taking the meat and meat products in the large intestine to create a toxic bacteria that are the human body. People who eat mainly meat and meat products are aggressive, fast plan, flushed when they fight, are intolerant and suffer from many physiological disorders.
The reason for this behavior is the excessive amount of adrenaline that is infused with the meat, because at the time of slaughter animals experiencing stress and adrenaline that is created on this occasion due to the fear remains in the meat.
Modern humanity, a way of life in the eternal rush for material wealth, but is exposed to stressful situations, anxiety and fear for their own maintenance, so that extra adrenaline that brings meat only exacerbates the existing situation.
In addition, once the slaughter of animals coming to the decomposition of proteins that cause putrefaction of meat and meat takes grayish green color. Because the meat is colored artificial substances (nitrites and nitrates) and the older to the more chemicals need to get a fresh, reddish, "natural" color.
Also, during the fattening feed added hormones for faster maturing and the process continues in the flesh. Consumption of such meat (especially beef) Children's body too quickly physiologically mature, which leads to premature puberty, which was not accompanied by parallel psychological development.
In addition, hormones are given to livestock to stop the sexual instincts of early influence on the occurrence of sterility in young people. This means that the meat is cultivated in today's modern farms is worthless biological, pathological meat, which is toxic and very harmful to the human body.
By its very constitution of man is the biological herbivore or he who eats the fruits and anything containing meat can be offset by proper selection and combination of foods.
For example, in content and quality of soy protein (43% protein) was much better and more acceptable to the human body foodstuff. Whole wheat and grains in general, are rich in protein and carbohydrates and many are nutritious meat.
In addition, they bind all the toxins and purify the intestines and relieve the body of toxins, and grease and refreshes worn-out joints. Vegetarian food is high in fiber necessary for the regular release of the body of waste matter, which does not contain meat, so a very long time in the body of a man (five days).
Period welding vegetarian food is much faster and easier, because the organism does not require additional energy, which remains for regeneration, physical and mental activities. If you can not without the meat. then you should not eat meat more than once a week and preferably is of organic origin.
Do not be taken pork, which are proven to have exactly the same tissue as the human flesh. The least harmful to the human body is a lamb meat (due to a mild vibration that has a lamb), horse and turkey meat. The meat must be eaten with fresh onions, which binds toxins and helps the body does not pollute too much meat intake.
When preparing meat is recommended that you meat is allowed to age in sour milk two to three days and it ferments, and after that no oil and any extras fry in covered container at about 60 ° C. For feeding small children, the meat should be blended.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE wateriness very similar to that in Humans: meat, because the digestion of the permanent intestinal defense system does not recognize as a foreign body and easily passes through the intestinal walls into the lymph and blood, together with the protein products of putrefaction and toxins (poisons). It happens faster and easier than any other animal or vegetable protein.
PORK Holds one protein which on the basis of its structure has a very high rate of decay (rot). Very quickly into putridity. Thus, the resulting decay significantly burden the intestines, lymph, blood, liver and all other organs of elimination and disposal of toxins and waste. Because of fat, cholesterol and its specific structural proteins, pork is the biggest instigator of atherosclerosis.
Pig meat is high in fat that are found in all cells and not only in the so-called fat cells like a lamb or beef. The high content of cholesterol, the highest in the pork. Cholesterol in the human body has different tasks, such as building cell membrane and the transfer of fat but it is too, too!
Connective tissue are particularly adversely affected by eating pork. Connective tissue has the task of the organism as a whole hangs together. The water in the connective tissue holds the joint of small molecules that usually contain sulfur.
The more compounds in connective tissue, the more it collects water and tissue more swollen. Because muscle has a high percentage of sulfur, using pork in a large part of these sulfur compounds deposited in the connective tissue (tendons and cartilage). This connective tissue is like a sponge filled with water and with regular use of pork literally swelling.
Mucous substance of pork are deposited in the veins, tendons and cartilage of the system to move. Using pork, this substance of the connective tissues become somewhat slimy, soft and less resistant. The consequence is that the vessels more easily stretched, the tendon can not withstand the load of a degenerate cartilage (depleted). This leads to the typical ailments as rheumatism, arthritis, osteoarthritis, cartilage damage to joint.
* Growth hormone in large quantities in pork and who does not act solely on increased growth of young people reach puberty, but is active in adults, promotes inflammation, proliferation, etc. Since it stimulates all the processes of growth, and encourages the growth of cancer cells. Congestion of the connective tissue involved undisputed as the cause of the cancer, a rise in hormone accelerates its development.
* Histamine is the pork found in high concentrations. Its concentration is highest in comparison with other animals for slaughter. Histamine in turn strongest challenger allergic reaction at all. The body that is nourished by pork meat due to high amounts of histamine less resistant to stress and is therefore prone to stomach ulcers, cardiac arrhythmias and heart attacks. Pork of histamine and stimulates skin allergies as urticarija, neurodermatitis and hay fever.
Toxins from pork to disrupt the work of the nervous system and therefore other functions of the organism. Pork is the largest lymphatic burden that the test can cover. Pork burden on the lymphatic system has 4 (four) weeks after eating. Pigs from the mass rearing of the greatest amount of adrenaline and secrete it directly into the blood and the eating of blood have disastrous consequences for those who do so.
At this writing, used books, PhD Joseph Antolovic and signed by Dr. Carlo Rubbia (Nobel Prize) and Prof. I. Prigogine (Nobel Prize) as well as many other scientists. http://truthabouthumanfood.blogspot.com/2011/08/meat-and-its-harmfulness.html?m=1
Mary Abbott in her New York studio in about 1950. She was part of a circle of artists that included de Kooning, Motherwell, Pollock and Kline, though she never received the recognition they did.
She traveled in the same circles as Pollock and de Kooning, but recognition in a male-dominated genre often eluded her. Mary Abbott, who was at the heart of the Abstract Expressionist movement in New York in the 1940s and ’50s but, like other women painting in that genre, received far less recognition than her male counterparts, died on Aug. 23 in Southampton, N.Y. She was 98.
Thomas McCormick of the McCormick Gallery in Chicago, which represented her, announced the death. Ms. Abbott painted bold, colorful works, often inspired by nature or music, and traveled in the same circles as Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning and other artists who were redefining painting in the years after World War II. De Kooning in particular, 17 years her senior, became a friend, lover and protector, including from some of the other male artists.
“I didn’t like Pollock much,” Ms. Abbott related in an interview for the biography “de Kooning: An American Master,” by Mark Stevens and Annalyn Swan (2004). “When he was sober he didn’t talk, and when he was drunk Bill had to keep pulling him off of me.” That vivid description conveys what women trying to make a name for themselves in that world were facing.
“Mary Abbott was an early participant in the development of Abstract Expressionism,” said Gwen Chanzit, curator of the 2016 Denver Art Museum exhibition “Women of Abstract Expressionism,” which included works by Ms. Abbott, “but like other women painters, she was mostly left out of historical accounts of this male-dominated movement. Only now are the women of Abstract Expressionism beginning to be recognized for their contributions.”
Unlike some of her contemporaries — among them Lee Krasner (1908-84), Pollock’s wife, and Jay DeFeo (1929-89) — Ms. Abbott lived to see a resurgence of interest in the work of female Abstract Expressionists.
“To see this and other early works by Ms. Abbott together is a treat,” Benjamin Genocchio, reviewing a 2008 show at the Spanierman Gallery in East Hampton, N.Y., featuring several of her paintings, wrote in The New York Times, “for most come from private collections and have rarely been publicly shown.
Few of her works are on permanent display in New York-area museums. That is a shame, for she is one of the last great Abstract Expressionist painters of her generation.”
Mary Lee Abbott was born on July 27, 1921, in New York City, and for her first two decades seemed headed for an entirely different sort of life. Her father, Henry, was a Navy captain and recipient of the Navy Cross, and her mother, Elizabeth, a poet and syndicated columnist, was a member of the socially prominent Grinnell family. Ms. Abbott was first singled out in The Times and other newspapers not as an artist but as a debutante, her high-society activities documented in painstaking detail.
“Debutantes of this season, headed by Miss Mary Lee Abbott, granddaughter of Mrs. William Morton Grinnell, were among the groups rehearsing this morning at Conscience Point for the Southampton tercentenary pageant, ‘Founded for Freedom,’” The Times reported on Aug. 9, 1940, “which will be given next Wednesday and Thursday at North Sea, within sight of the landing place of the community’s first settlers.”
By then, though, Ms. Abbott had already begun taking classes under George Grosz at the Art Students League in Manhattan. After a foray into modeling — she appeared in Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar and other magazines — she moved in 1946 into a cold-water flat at 88 East 10th Street, near Washington Square Park, and plunged into the artist life. De Kooning, according to “An American Master,” used to bring her kerosene to make sure she had heat. They were romantically involved for some years.
“There were no dinners,” she was quoted as saying in that book. “There wasn’t money for that. Then later we went to the Cedar Bar.” That tavern was a famed gathering place for avant-garde artists and writers. Pollock, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell and other noted Abstract Expressionists congregated there.
Ms. Abbott was by then separated from Lewis Teague, an artist she had married in 1943, and in 1949 she went to the Virgin Islands to obtain a divorce from him. There she met Tom Clyde, a retired investor, and they married the next year.
They had a residence on Long Island, but because he had back problems, they spent winters in Haiti and St. Croix, and Ms. Abbott’s paintings began to be influenced by the people and lush landscapes she found there. Later, when she had once again settled in Southampton, her garden inspired her work.
“Mythology and religion were touchstones, but nature was Abbott’s lifelong interest,” Ms. Chanzit said by email. “Her free brushwork was particularly inspired by place and by the variations of color and light in the natural world. Her paintings were never documents of specific sites, but her personal responses to them.”
She and Mr. Clyde divorced in 1966, and she spent the 1970s teaching at the University of Minnesota. Then she returned to the East Coast, for some years dividing her time between a loft on West Broadway in Manhattan and a small house in Southampton.
A decade ago she finally gave up the loft. Ms. Abbott is survived by a half sister, Elizabeth Abbott. In 2017 the online gallery IdeelArt wrote about Ms. Abbott, pondering why she was not better known.
“How is it that an artist whose work is considered to have had a profound impact on one of the most important art movements of the past century is also somehow practically unknown to contemporary audiences?” the article asked.
“Based on interviews Abbott has given, things like having her accomplishments touted, getting credit for her influence and being recognized for her contributions to art history are of little importance to her. Still active in her studio today in her mid-90s, Abbott seems content to focus on what she believes is most important: making art; and to let irrelevancies like reputation handle themselves.”
https://www-nytimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/arts/design/mary-abbott-dead.amp.html?amp_js_v=0.1&usqp=mq331AQCKAE%3D#origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&prerenderSize=1&visibilityState=visible&paddingTop=32&p2r=0&horizontalScrolling=0&csi=1&aoh=15781569918454&viewerUrl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Famp%2Fs%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F10%2F01%2Farts%2Fdesign%2Fmary-abbott-dead.amp.html&history=1&storage=1&cid=1&cap=navigateTo%2Ccid%2CfullReplaceHistory%2Cfragment%2CreplaceUrl
Nature was Mary Abbot’s greatest companion, inspiration, and passion throughout her entire life. As a child she spent vast amounts of time outdoors, submerging herself in the natural world. She considered studying biology but didn’t want to go to college.
Painting provided her the perfect opportunity to study and experience nature. Her work inspired by the jungles of the Caribbean is more about her experience of the jungle rather than any depiction of it.
Raised in Southampton, she came from a family of strong women and historical lineage (she is a descendent of the second president of the United States John Adams).
https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100010596032988
She traveled in her youth with her grandmother and her aunt Mary Ogden Abbott, an artist in her own right. Her natural beauty led to a successful coming out as a debutante and modeling for several magazines but she challenged the gender norm by pursuing painting as her main career.
The Circle of Love, Life, and Light
Her first marriage was to Lewis R. Tague who was also a painter. They worked alongside each other, exploring cubism before their separation and divorce three years later. Then she moved to New York City and found her own artistic voice, working alongside David Hare and Mark Rothko who taught her at the experimental school The Subjects of the Artist.
It was with her second husband, Tom Clyde that she had the opportunity to explore the tropics. The pair wintered in the Caribbean because of Clyde’s health and Mary’s love of travel and nature. She adored the jungles and culture of Haiti and the Virgin Islands and spent time in the jungles, markets, and abandoned plantations in search of inspiration for her work. Still living in Southampton, Mary continues to paint and pull inspiration from the natural world.
Learn more in the video below.
Image credit: Mary Abbott, All Green, about 1954. Oil paint on linen; 49 × 45-1/8 in. Denver Art Museum: Gift of Janis and Tom McCormick, 2013.250. ©Mary Abbott
https://denverartmuseum.org/article/women-abstract-expressionism-artist-mary-abbott
In mythology, the serpent symbolises fertility and procreation, wisdom, death, and resurrection (due to the shedding of its skin, which is not akin to rebirth), and in the earliest schools of mysticism, the symbol of ‘The Word’ was the serpent.
The ‘light’ that appeared was metaphorically defined as a serpent called ‘Kundalini’, coiled at the base of the spine to remain dormant in an unawakened person. Divinity or awakening one’s Godhood and latent abilities came with the rituals and teachings brought by the serpent people.
To understand them, we must look at the original ‘serpents’. In China, it was a male and female pair with human heads and serpent bodies named Fu Xi and Nu Wa who created humans. In Sumer, it was the Annunaki Nin-Khursag and her husband Enki who were given the task of creating workers.
Enki is known to us as the serpent in Genesis—the one who gave us the ability to think and reason and so was cursed by his brother Enlil for it. To the Hindus, it was the cosmic serpent Ananta who created us. So, if, at the dawn of man’s creation we have a pair of serpent-like beings who created us, then those of the serpent cult must have been their direct descendants, either by blood or by spirit.
The next serpent was Enki’s son Ningizzidda, known to the Sumerians, Egyptians and Tibetans. According to Zecharia Sitchin, he dwelt in Magan, or what is known to us as Egypt, leading theorists to believe he was Thoth who formed a mystery school propagating ideas of self-improvement and enlightenment, furthering his father’s deeds and philosophy.
If Enki and Ningizzidda ruled over Magan as is claimed, then that school would have been a beacon attracting all who wished to gain knowledge, backed by the power and might of Magan. Is there any other proof to that theory? It was claimed at the Council of Nicea that ‘the powers of gods came from Egypt’.
There was a Great White Brotherhood (named for their raiment), a prominent mystery school in Karnak. A branch of it became the Egyptian Therapeutate who in Judea were known as the Essenes. Jesus, being an Essene, most likely was initiated in Egypt at this mystery school, rising up the levels until he became a ‘Master’.
Eventually the Annunaki did lose control of the Earth and its population, which was rapidly expanding, with mankind scattered across the globe forming their own colonies and social structures.
Shirdi Sai Baba
Those who followed the serpent ideology would have been concerned with maintaining relevance while faced with constant change, new religions, and potential threats to their own land which was wealthy. To both protect themselves and to encourage people to follow their belief system, they sent out emissaries (the ‘Shining Ones’) and we find tales of these Shining Ones the world over. To simple hunters and fishermen they seemed like gods.
They did not come to conquer the lands, but rather to aid the people, teaching them how to cultivate crops, heal their sick and injured, and read the stars. Numerous ancient cultures throughout the world worshipped the serpent, beings such as Quetzalcoatl, Cihuacohuatziti, and Cihuacohuatl in Mexico and Peru, the Naga King of India and his Nagin children, Po Nagar in Vietnam, who was their first Empress, and the serpent deities who were beautiful women associated with trees and lakes. The Snake Goddess of Egypt, Wadjet, was protector of the land, kings, and women in childbirth. In Minoa, the Snake Goddess was addressed as A-sa-sa-ra-me and was related to the Hittite Ishassara, the Khmer Apsara and the Canaanite Asherah. Pre-Christian Ireland, Scotland and England also worshipped the serpent.
However, a visiting figurehead was not enough to cement the serpent cult’s position, especially when faced with new religions and kingdoms that were acquiring political and military might. To that end, politically advantageous marriages were arranged with the emerging ruling families.
A serpent prince or princess marrying into the family would bring trade, wealth, knowledge on how to form a coherent society and the secrets known only to the cult, which would then be passed down to the resultant children.
It was this well of knowledge that gave the new ruling family the advantage over their people and allowed them to claim ‘Divinity’- or superiority over all others. Yet most of these marriages did not end happily.
King Dwuttabaung of Burma had a Naga princess as wife. The capital of Burma, Pagan, had Naga advisors and attendants. In some accounts, after a falling out with his wife, he was said to have been killed by the Nagas.
In Laos, the tale is told of the Naga Prince Phangkhi, who fell in love with a Khmer Princess, Aikham. Wishing to have a glimpse of her but remain incognito, he turned himself into a squirrel but was unfortunately caught and eaten. His father, the Naga King waged war on the kingdom in retaliation, capturing the princess. King Phadaeng, who was also in love with her, went to rescue her, but was unsuccessful, becoming the Ghost King and continuing the siege of the Naga King’s capital.
In Cambodia, it was Soma, the daughter of King Naga, who was captured by the Brahmin Priest Kaundinya who then married him. Her father sucked up the water from a swampy land, creating the country of Kampuchea for the couple.
In Java, there is a story that bears some similarity to the Little Mermaid. It is the tale of Nyai Lara Kidul, who was married to the human king. She was so beautiful that his other wives hired a witch to make her ugly. In despair, she jumped into the ocean, where the goddess took pity on her, turning her into a half-human, half-snake and anointing her Queen of the Ocean.
In India, the serpent beings were known as Nagin—the children of the Naga King. Several Royal Families claim lineage through inter-marriage in Nagin including the Manipur, Yadavas and Pallavas.
In Greece, the most famous example is Alexander the Great, whose mother was an enthusiastic participant in Orphic rites, often dancing with serpents draped about her. In the fresco titled ‘Zeus seduces Olympias’, by Giulio Romano; Zeus has a head and torso of a human, but the tail of a serpent.
In France, we have the tale of Melusine—half human/half fish (or serpent), betrayed by her husband who broke his word to honour her request that he not disturb her while she took her ritual bath.
Why, when the serpent beings were known for their beauty and brought such advantages, did the marriages often end so badly? Perhaps the serpent princess found herself missing her home.
She also found herself dependant on her husband’s good will to ensure she was welcomed into society and often faced censure, suspicion of her foreign influences and outright jealousy.
Unable to form friendships, she was ostracized and should her husband’s affection waver, those who sought her downfall would pounce. In many cases, the princess simply returned home, leaving her children behind.
In others, she or her husband would die. Yet she is remembered through her children, who were born with greater strength and intelligence than those around them, enabling the family to assert its claim that they had been granted the divine right to rule by the gods, the superior children proof of the gods’ favor.
https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/tracing-origins-serpent-cult-002393
World interest in the heritage of the extinct Maya civilization is not fading away even nowadays. Numerous religious and cult mysteries, sulky predictions, the most accurate calendar, gigantic ruined cities, and settlements invariably attract crowds of curious tourists. Chichen Itza is the most renowned ancient city which magical ruins have been examined throughout hundreds of years.
History of the ancient Maya city - Chichen Itza - According to the archeological facts and the scraps of age-old chronicles, the scientists concluded that the famous Maya city was founded in the V-VI centuries of the new era. It had right away become the political, religious, and cultural center of Yucatan state.
All the statements regarding Chichen Itza are not confirmed and are clear hypotheses requiring proofs which are practically impossible to be found. According to some facts, there were from 20 to 30 thousand permanent residents in the city. Countless crowds of pilgrims, wanderers, traders, and money-changers visited this settlement every year.
In the X century, Maya were conquered by Toltec. Chichen Itza was partially plundered, and the majority of the citizens left the city. However, life still continued there. It fell into decay in the XIII century. The buildings began to fall apart and people abandoned Chichen
For a very long time, no one showed interest to the majestic and sinister ruins. However, in the middle of the XIX century, people became quite interested in culture, astrology, and mainly in the legendary Maya treasure. People started numerous archeological digs and researches on the territory. The artists and photographers from all over the world came to capture the fantastical buildings and mysterious temples.
In the 1950s, the authorities of Mexico determined to reconstruct the initial outlook of Chichen Itza. At least, they wanted to try and achieve this as far as it was possible. Soon enough, this place has become a mecca for tourists.
In 2007, Chichen Itza was named one of the New 7 Wonders of the World and was included to the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city comprises the territory of approximately 6 square kilometers.
If you want to explore the numerous remaining architectural complexes in detail, examine each relief and column, one day will definitely not be enough. Unfortunately, the excursions from Cancun last only 1 day. There’s no place to spend a night in Chichen Itza and to tell you the truth, it’s pretty creepy.
The professional guide will lead the group along the paved paths well-preserved throughout all the centuries. He will tell you about all the cult constructions in the city.
The most significant and enormous one is El Castillo pyramid also known as Temple of Kukulcan. The guide will tell you the legends about the bloody sacrifices and the religious beliefs of this ancient tribe.
Temple of Warriors will amaze you with the realistic reliefs and sculptures. It’s pretty easy to get lost between the thousands of columns. The Great Ballcourt will astonish you with its huge territory and the scary pictures of the cut off heads will give you the creeps.
The tour includes a visit to the sacred cenote - a natural pond 60 meters in diameter. There are proofs that Maya used to throw women and children as well as numerous cult artifacts to this lake asking their gods for rain. The diversity of emotions and the extraordinary energy of this place can hardly leave someone indifferent.
https://planetofhotels.com/en/mexico/cancun/chichen-itza?utm_source=affiliate&utm_campaign=attractions&click_id=d40cc446e894482fbd5edfb42cfa9512
Persius says,”Pinge duos anguea; pueri, sacer est locos.” “Paint two snakes, and the place is sacred.” The ancient theme of mother nature in the form of the serpent goddesses ruling supreme over the earth and its inhabitants has been taught for thousands of years.
Plutarch had said that this idea of Nature as a female and mother superior to all the other divinities came to us from the ancient holy island Crete. The meaning of the name Crete is to create, and it was the official birthplace of all Western manufactured civilization.
This is why 33rd Degree Masonic Philosopher, Manly Hall had written in The Secret Teachings of All Ages, “The serpent is the symbol and prototype of the Universal Savior, who redeems the worlds by giving creation the knowledge of itself and the realization of good and evil.”
In addition to all these titles they have been given throughout written history, they have also been given many other different names by various other cultures in their native languages which adds to the confusion. The ancient Greeks who were their ancestors, had called them the Phoenicians.
Their ancient Egyptian cousins had referred to them as the Sea Peoples, and they called their island Caphtor. These ancient Phoenicians or Cretans were also the descendants of the original Israelites of the bible.
We can simply call them the Phoenician Hebrews who were the first true masters of the alphabet, writing, magic, arts, science, weapons, modern Draconian laws, population control by sorcery, shipbuilding, sea navigation, and who became the absolute rulers of all the seas for thousands of years.
The Phoenicians of Crete had also created a global religion based on esoteric serpent worship that they imported to just about every nation and land in the world. They were also the first inventors of the holy bible in which their version is referred to as the Old Testament and the Torah.
Some souls of the serpent tribe would later also be known as the Gods, Goddesses and Demons of the bible, mythology and the occult of the world such as King Solomon and his demons with his mighty magical worm Shamir.
The Roman-Jewish historian, Josephus whose fourth wife was a princess from Crete, had said they were called the Idumeans who we know of in the bible as the Judeans of the Tribe of Judah and the Jews of today. They have been known by several different names over the course of many thousands of years.
In the bible this serpent race is known by a plethora of names such as the Cretans, Sidonians, Canaanites, and Judeans. Their priests have also been called by a variety name like the Priests of Pan or Cybele, Curetes, Corybantes, Telchines, Ophites, Kohanim, Hivites, and the Levites. In England and Gaul, they were known as the Celts, and in Italy as the Umbrians.
It is on the sacred island of Crete where the first organized society of Gnostics, the Phoenicians of Crete had also instituted the worldwide religion of the Goddess in the form of female and serpent worship.
They were one of the first cultures to truly fine tune the science and the rituals of the mother goddess into a global religion, which they had imported with their goods of commerce in their boats for thousands of years all around the world. Scientific evidence of this fact can be found in just about every organize society on earth.
The first images and statues of the original serpent goddess dating from approximately 1600 BCE were found on Crete by British archaeologist, Arthur Evans in 1903 during the excavation of Minoan archaeological sites in Crete. One of the most ancient statuettes was called by Sir Arthur Evans, “The Snake Goddess.”
The statue shows a woman whose arms are extended with the right hand holding the head of a serpent whose body passes over her shoulder and down her back. The left hand holds the serpent’s tail, which is wound round her arm.
Another serpent rears its head over the mitre which the goddess wears, and its coils slip down over her neck and uncovered breast, and mingle with her regular snaky curls. There were also Snake or Serpent Goddess figurines of a woman holding a snake in each hand that were found only in-house sanctuaries as “the snake of the household.”
Evans had linked the serpent goddess of Crete with the Egyptian snake goddess Wadjet (/'w??d?d??t/ or /'wæd?d??t/; Egyptian w??yt, “green one”). This goddess was associated with the land and depicted as a snake (cobra)-headed woman or as a woman with two snake heads, and at other times, a snake with a woman’s head.
She was the joint protector and patron of all of Egypt, and this is why the Pharaohs had worn cobras on their heads to alchemically control their worm subjects along with the shepherd’s crook and flail.
This is why we find the mysterious symbol of the serpent in the garden with Adam and Eve in the scriptures under the book of Genesis. The meaning of the name Adam is red man, and the name Eve (Evia) in Hebrew signifies a female serpent. The meaning of genesis is the origin or mode of formation of something.
The serpent goddesses Tzinteotl is the Cretan Snake Goddess and Hebrew Eve of Aztec mythology. She is called Mother Earth and Mother of Gods (Teteo Inan). To the Mexicans she was the female serpent, Cihuacoatl who was the great mother of the human race. Here she is holding the serpent just like the statuettes of the goddess found on the island of Crete.
The Mexicans were descendants of ancient Phoenicians who brought their religion to Mexico. All these ancient cultures and races where we find this serpent worship, is scientific evidence that the Cretans, (AKA) Phoenicians had shipped in their goddess religion at some time to their shores.
In addition, the Phoenicians had intermixed with these races placing their serpent seed in the womb of the belly all over mother earth. You see, they not only conquered by the sea and commerce, they had also secretly done so by the worms or sperm in the vagina of the serpent goddess.
It was from the serpent that man and woman was created, but it is also the adversary named Samael. 33rd Degree Freemason and author, Manly P Hall had written, “In the 3rd chapter of Genesis the adversary is Samael, the Serpent, and like Mephistopholes it is “a spirit of negation; part of the power that still works for good while ever scheming ill.” (How to Understand Your Bible).
In the Old Testament, Samael (also Sammael or Samil) is an important archangel in Talmudic and post-Talmudic lore, a figure who is accuser, seducer and destroyer, and has been regarded as both good and evil.
It is said that he was the guardian angel of Esau and a patron of the Roman empire. The meaning of the name Samael (Sam) in Hebrew is; “Sun child; bright sun, and the name Ael or El, signifies God.” Samael is the sun child of God.
In the 3rd century the prophet, Manes taught Christianity in the form of Serpent Worship in Asia Minor, stating that ” Christ was an incarnation of the Great Serpent, who glided over the cradle of the Virgin Mary, when she was asleep, at the age of a year and a half.”
In the Vatican sits a beautiful Parian marble sculpture of a goddess who has a bracelet on the upper part of her left arm in the form of a serpent; called by the ancients, Ophis. The word ophis, is Greek for serpent.
The name of the goddess is Ariadne who was originally worshipped on the holy island of Crete. She was the daughter of the famous law giver of Crete, King Minos. Today she is known as the Vatican Sleeping Ariadne, long called Cleopatra.
We find the serpent (worm) in the garden with Adam, a name meaning red man, and Eve, a name the signifies serpent. From the Tree, or should I say the tree of life in the form of our blood (DNA and RNA), the serpent ascends and whispers into the Third Eye (hippocampus or ammon’s horn) of both Adam and Eve, the secret teachings of all ages.
In a sense, they are both accursed with knowledge of both good and evil in which they are given free will to choose to be like angels who ascend to the light up Jacob’s ladder to Jupiter, or become devils who descend to the darkness of the ruler of earth, the devil who we know in science as the father of all humans, the worm. In the end, both will be saved by the universal savior of the light, for the truth of their consciousness and true nature of themselves shall set them free.
https://gnosticwarrior.com/the-serpent-goddess.html
The Caddo Nation is a confederacy of several Southeastern Native American tribes. Their ancestors historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, Louisiana, and portions of southern Arkansas and Oklahoma.
They were descendants of the Caddoan Mississippian culture that constructed huge earthwork mounds at several sites in this territory. In the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas; they were removed to Indian Territory in 1859.
Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized tribe with its capital at Binger, Oklahoma. Descendants of the historic Caddo tribes, with documentation of at least 1⁄16 ancestry, are eligible to enroll as members in the Caddo Nation. The several Caddo languages have converged into a single language.
The Caddo are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples, the Fourche Maline and Mossy Grove cultures, whose members were living in the area of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas between 200 BCE and 800 CE. The Wichita and Pawnee are related to the Caddo, as both tribes speak Caddoan languages.
By 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Leaders directed the construction of major earthworks, serving as temple mounds and platforms for residences of the elite. The flat-topped mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions.
As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others.[8] By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as "Caddoan" had emerged. By 1200, the many villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had developed extensive maize agriculture, producing a surplus that allowed for greater density of settlement.
In these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries.
The Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, in what is considered the westernmost point of the Mississippian culture.
The Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of the time. The Piney Woods, the geographic area where they lived, was affected by the Great Drought from 1276–1299 CE, which covered an area extending to present-day California and disrupted many Native American cultures.
Archeological evidence has confirmed that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. The Caddoan Mississippian people were the direct ancestors of the historic Caddo people and related Caddo-language speakers who encountered the first Europeans, as well as of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.
Caddo oral history of their creation story says the tribe emerged from a cave, called Chahkanina or "the place of crying," located at the confluence of the Red River of the South and Mississippi River in northern present-day Louisiana. Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back.
An old Caddo man carried with him a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which have continued to be important religious items to the people. His wife carried corn and pumpkin seeds. As people and accompanying animals emerged, the wolf looked back. The exit from the underground closed to the remaining people and animals.
The Caddo peoples moved west along the Red River, which they called Bah'hatteno in Caddo.[14] A Caddo woman, Zacado, instructed the tribe in hunting, fishing, home construction, and making clothing. Caddo religion focuses on Kadhi háyuh, translating to "Lord Above" or "Lord of the Sky."
In early times, the people were led by priests, including a head priest, the xinesi, who could commune with spirits residing near Caddo temples. A cycle of ceremonies developed around important periods of corn cultivation. Tobacco was and is used ceremonially. Early priests drank a purifying sacrament made of wild olive leaves.
Centuries before extensive European contact, some of the Caddo territory was invaded by migrating Dhegihan-speaking peoples, Osage, Ponca, Omaha, and Kaw, who moved west beginning about 1200 due to years of warfare with the Iroquois in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky. The Iroquois took control of hunting grounds in the area.
The Osage particularly fought the Caddo, pushed them out of some former territory, and became dominant in the region of present-day Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Kansas. These tribes had become settled in their new territory west of the Mississippi prior to mid-18th-century European contact.
Most of the Caddo historically lived in the Piney Woods ecoregion of the United States, divided among the state regions of East Texas, southern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Oklahoma. This region extends up to the foothills of the Ozarks.
The Piney Woods are a dense forest of deciduous and pinophyta flora covering rolling hills, steep river valleys, and intermittent wetlands called "bayous". Caddo people primarily settled near the Caddo River. When they first encountered Europeans and Africans, the Caddo tribes organized themselves in three confederacies: the Natchitoches, Hasinai, and Kadohadacho.
They were loosely affiliated with other neighboring tribes including the Yowani a Choctaw band. The Natchitoches lived in now northern Louisiana, the Haisinai lived in East Texas, and the Kadohadacho lived near the border of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.
The Caddo people had a diet based on cultivated crops, particularly maize (corn), but also sunflower, pumpkins, and squash. These foods held cultural significance, as did wild turkeys. They hunted and gathered wild plants, as well.
The Caddo Native Americans contained a culture that consisted of the hunting and gathering dynamic. The men took over the duties of hunting year round, while the young and healthy women were in charge of the gathering of the tribe.
Elderly women planted the seeds for the seasons' crop. Gathered materials included corn, sunflowers, beans, melons, tobacco, and squash during the warm seasons and acorns and roots to provide food other than meat in the cold seasons when crops wouldn't grow.
While hunting, the men used handcrafted bows and arrows to hunt animals such as wild turkey, quail, rabbits, bears, and buffalo during winter months. Besides the tools for searching for animals, most tools and items were made by women.
They would make wooden mortars, as well as pots and other utensils out of clay. These wood and clay tools were carved and molded to help with daily jobs like cooking the meals for the tribe. These tools were seen with such importance that men and women were buried with the items that they had made.
The Caddo also had a focus on the decorating of the body. Men favored temporary body modifications such as the painting of skin, jewelry, ear piercing, or hair decorations, like braids, mixed in with bird feathers or animal fur.
While the women of the tribe still wore jewelry and styled their hair similarly to men, most female were interested in the art of tattooing the body. Such tattoos covered most of the body, including the face.
The Caddo first encountered Europeans and Africans in 1541 when the Spanish Hernando de Soto Expedition came through their lands. De Soto's force had a violent clash with one band of Caddo Indians, the Tula people, near present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas. This historic event has been marked by the modern town with a monument.
French explorers in the early 18th century encountered the Natchitoche in northern Louisiana. They were followed by fur traders from outposts along the Gulf Coast, and later by missionaries from France and Spain, who also traveled among the people.
The Europeans carried infections such as smallpox and measles, because these were endemic in their societies. As the Caddo peoples had no acquired immunity to such new diseases, they suffered epidemics with high fatalities that decimated the tribal populations. Influenza and malaria also devastated the Caddo.
French traders built forts with trading posts near Caddo villages, that already were important hubs in the Great Plains trading network. These stations attracted more French and other European settlers.
Among such settlements are the present-day communities of Elysian Fields and Nacogdoches, Texas, and Natchitoches, Louisiana. In the latter two towns, early explorers and settlers kept the original Caddo names of the villages.
Having given way over years before the power of the former Ohio Valley tribes, the later Caddo negotiated for peace with the waves of Spanish, French, and finally Anglo-American settlers.
After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, by which the United States took over the former French colonial territory west of the Mississippi River, the US government sought to ally with the Caddo peoples.
During the War of 1812, American generals such as William Henry Harrison, William Clark, and Andrew Jackson crushed pro-British uprisings among other Southeast Indians, in particular the Creeks.
Due to the Caddo's neutrality and their importance as a source of information for the Louisiana Territory government, they were left alone. In the 1830s, the federal government embarked on a program of Indian removal of tribes from the Southeast in order to enable European-American settlement, as new migrants pressed from the east.
In 1835 the Kadohadacho, the northernmost Caddo confederacy, signed a treaty with the US to relocate to independent Mexico (in the area of present-day East Texas). Then lightly settled by Mexican colonists, this area was being rapidly transformed by greatly increased immigration of European Americans.
In 1836, the Anglo-Americans declared independence from Mexico and established the Republic of Texas, an independent nation. The name "Texas" is derived from the Hasinai word táysha, meaning "friend".
On December 29, 1845, Texas was admitted to the US as a state. At that time, the federal government forced the relocation of both the Hasinai and the Kadohadacho as well as remnants of allied Delaware (Lenape) and Yowani onto the Brazos Reservation.
Pressures increased on the Brazos Reservation Indians to remove north, culminating in a violent attack on December 26, 1858 on a Caddo encampment just off the reservation. This vigilante group led by Captain Peter Garland was a vigilante force from Erath County.
The Caddo group was led by Choctaw Tom who was a Yowani Choctaw married to a Hasinai woman, who was killed in this fight along with twenty-seven other Indians.
In 1859, many of the Caddo were relocated again to Indian Territory north of Texas, in present-day Oklahoma. After the Civil War, the Caddo were concentrated on a reservation located between the Washita and Canadian rivers in Indian Territory.
In the late 19th century, the Caddo took up the Ghost Dance religion, which was widespread among American Indian nations in the West. John Wilson, a Caddo-Lenape medicine man who spoke only Caddo, was an influential leader in the Ghost Dance.
In 1880, Wilson became a peyote roadman. The tribe had known the Half Moon peyote ceremony, but Wilson introduced the Big Moon ceremony to them. The Caddo tribe remains very active in the Native American Church today.
Congress passed the Dawes Act to promote assimilation of tribes in Indian Territory. It authorized distribution of tribal communal landholdings into allotments for individual households in order for them to establish subsistence family farms along the European-American model. Any tribal lands remaining after such allotments were to be declared "surplus" and sold, including to non-Native Americans.
The allotment system was intended to extinguish tribal Native American land claims to enable admission of Oklahoma as a state and assimilate Native Americans into the majority culture.
At the same time, tribal governments were to be ended. The territory had already been settled by numerous European Americans outside the tribal territories.
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The Caddo vigorously opposed allotment. Whitebread, a Caddo leader, said, "because of their peaceful lives and friendship to the white man, and through their ignorance were not consulted, and have been ignored and stuck away in a corner and allowed to exist by sufferance."
Tribal governments were dismantled at this time, and Native Americans were expected to act as state and US citizens. After some period, the adverse effects of these changes were recognized. The Caddo and other Native American peoples suffered greatly from the disruption of the loss of their lands and breakup of their traditional cultures.
Under the federal Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, the Caddo restored their tribal government. They adopted a written constitution and a process of electing officials. They organized in 1938 as the Caddo Indian Tribe of Oklahoma. They ratified their constitution on 17 January 1938.
In 1976, they drafted a new constitution, which continues elected representative government. During the 20th century, Caddo leaders such as Melford Williams, Harry Guy, Hubert Halfmoon, and Vernon Hunter have helped shape the tribe.
In a special election on 29 June 2002, the tribe adopted six amendments to the constitution. Tribal enrollment is open to individuals with a documented minimum of 1/16 degree Caddo blood quantum. Sometimes, severe disagreements have developed among factions of the tribe that have not been resolved in elections.
In August 2013, a group led by Philip Smith attempted to recall Brenda Shemayme Edwards, the chairman of the Tribal Council. This faction conducted a new election, but the victor stepped down, and Edwards refused to leave office.
In October 2013, Smith and his supporters broke into the Caddo Nation headquarters. They chained the front doors from the inside and blocked off the entrance to the administration building. The opposition called the Bureau of Indian Affairs Police.
Operation of the tribe was split between two factions. The Court of Indian Offenses, which had been overseeing issues for a year because of the internal conflict, in October 2014 ordered a new election for all positions.
In the January 2015 elections, all the top tribal positions were won by women: Tamara Michele Francis as chair, Carol D. Ross as vice chair, Jennifer Reeder as secretary, and Wildena G. Moffer as treasurer.
In July 2016, Tamara M. Francis was re-elected as the Chairman of the Caddo Nation. The Council consists of Chairman Francis, Vice Chairman Carol D. Ross, Acting Secretary Philip Martin, Treasurer Marilyn McDonald, Oklahoma City Representative Jennifer Wilson, Binger Representative Marilyn Threlkeld, Fort Cobb Representative Maureen Owings. (Chairman Francis is the daughter of the first elected female Chairman, Mary Pat Francis. She is the fourth elected female leader of the Caddo Nation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddo
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